Editing Venezuela (section)

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Venezuela}}
[[File:Venezuela Topography.png|300px|thumb|Topographic map of Venezuela]]

[[File:All Venezuela in three parts.jpg|thumb|Pictorial map of Venezuela]]

Venezuela is located in the north of South America; geologically, its mainland rests on the [[South American Plate]]. It has a total area of {{convert|916445|km2|abbr=on}} and a land area of {{convert|882050|km2|abbr=on}}, making Venezuela the [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|33rd largest country in the world]]. The territory it controls lies between latitudes [[equator|0°]] and [[16th parallel north|16°N]] and longitudes [[59th meridian west|59°]] and [[74th meridian west|74°W]].

Shaped roughly like a triangle, the country has a {{convert|2800|km|abbr=on|adj=on}} coastline in the north, which includes numerous islands in the Caribbean and the northeast borders the northern Atlantic Ocean. Most observers describe Venezuela in terms of four fairly well defined [[topography|topographical]] regions: the [[Maracaibo Basin|Maracaibo lowlands]] in the northwest, the northern mountains extending in a broad east–west arc from the Colombian border along the northern Caribbean coast, the wide plains in central Venezuela, and the [[Guiana Highlands]] in the southeast.

The northern mountains are the extreme northeastern extensions of South America's Andes mountain range. [[Pico Bolívar]], the nation's highest point at {{convert|4979|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, lies in this region. To the south, the dissected [[Guayana Region|Guiana Highlands]] contain the northern fringes of the Amazon Basin and [[Angel Falls]], the world's highest waterfall, as well as ''[[tepui]]s'', large table-like mountains. The country's center is characterized by the ''llanos'', which are extensive plains that stretch from the Colombian border in the far west to the Orinoco River [[river delta|delta]] in the east. The Orinoco, with its rich [[alluvium|alluvial soils]], binds the largest and most important [[Drainage system (geomorphology)|river system]] of the country; it originates in one of the largest [[drainage basin|watersheds]] in Latin America. The [[Caroní River (Venezuela)|Caroní]] and the [[Apure River|Apure]] are other major rivers.
[[File:Guanaguanare.JPG|thumb|273x273px|[[Cayo de Agua]], [[Los Roques Archipelago|Los Roques]] Archipiélago, [[Caribbean Sea]]]]
Venezuela borders Colombia to the west, [[Guyana]] to the east, and Brazil to the south. Caribbean islands such as [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Grenada]], [[Curaçao]], [[Aruba]], and the [[Leeward Antilles]] lie near the Venezuelan coast. Venezuela has territorial disputes with Guyana, formerly United Kingdom, largely concerning the [[Guyana–Venezuela territorial dispute|Essequibo area]] and with Colombia concerning the [[Gulf of Venezuela]]. In 1895, after years of diplomatic attempts to solve the border dispute, the dispute over the Essequibo River border flared up. It was submitted to a "neutral" commission (composed of British, American, and Russian representatives and without a direct Venezuelan representative), which in 1899 decided mostly against Venezuela's claim.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

=== Climate ===
{{Main|Climate of Venezuela}}Venezuela is entirely located in the tropics over the Equator to around 12° N. Its climate varies from humid low-elevation plains, where average annual temperatures range as high as {{convert|35|°C|°F|1}}, to glaciers and highlands (the ''[[páramo]]s'') with an average yearly temperature of {{convert|8|°C|°F|1}}. Annual rainfall varies from {{convert|430|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} in the semiarid portions of the northwest to over {{convert|1000|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} in the Orinoco Delta of the far east and the Amazonian Jungle in the south. The precipitation level is lower in the period from August through April. These periods are referred to as hot-humid and cold-dry seasons. Another characteristic of the climate is this variation throughout the country by the existence of a mountain range called "Cordillera de la Costa" which crosses the country from east to west. The majority of the population lives in these mountains.<ref name="LOC_2005">{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Venezuela.pdf|title=Country Profile: Venezuela|year=2005|publisher=Library of Congress (Federal Research Division)|access-date=10 March 2007|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225154220/https://www.loc.gov/collections/country-studies/about-this-collection/|url-status=live}}</ref>[[File:Venezuela Köppen.png|thumb|266x266px|Venezuela map of Köppen climate classification]]

The country falls into four horizontal temperature zones based primarily on elevation, having tropical, dry, temperate with dry winters, and polar ([[alpine tundra]]) climates, amongst others.{{sfn|Warhol|2006|p=65}}<ref name="Geografía – Clima">{{cite web |year=2009 |url = http://www.gobiernoenlinea.ve/venezuela/perfil_geografia4.html|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060303153257/http://www.gobiernoenlinea.ve/venezuela/perfil_geografia4.html|archive-date = 3 March 2006|title = Gobierno en Línea: Geografía, Clima|publisher = gobiernoenlinea.ve| access-date =27 January 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marietta.edu/~biol/biomes/alpine.htm|title=The Alpine Biome|access-date=19 December 2009|website=marietta.edu|archive-date=19 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100119015720/http://www.marietta.edu/~biol/biomes/alpine.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> In the tropical zone—below {{convert|800|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}—temperatures are hot, with yearly averages ranging between {{convert|26|and|28|°C|°F|1}}. The temperate zone ranges between {{convert|800|and|2000|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} with averages from {{convert|12|to|25|°C|°F|1}}; many of Venezuela's cities, including the capital, lie in this region. Colder conditions with temperatures from {{convert|9|to|11|°C|°F|1}} are found in the cool zone between {{convert|2000|and|3000|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, especially in the Venezuelan Andes, where pastureland and permanent snowfield with yearly averages below {{convert|8|°C}} cover land above {{convert|3000|m|ft|0|sp=us}} in the ''páramos''.

The highest temperature recorded was {{convert|42|°C}} in [[Machiques]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Extreme High Temperature in Venezuela|url=http://www.wunderground.com/climate/local_extremes.asp?extremesstation.db=burtworld&extremesstation.station_id=421|publisher=wunderground|access-date=16 October 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140920031041/http://www.wunderground.com/climate/local_extremes.asp?extremesstation.db=burtworld&extremesstation.station_id=421|archive-date=20 September 2014}}</ref> and the lowest temperature recorded was {{convert|-11|°C}}, reported from an uninhabited high altitude at [[Pico Piedras Blancas|Páramo de Piedras Blancas]] ([[Mérida state]]).<ref>{{cite web|title=Extreme Low Temp in Venezuela|url=http://www.wunderground.com/climate/local_extremes.asp?extremesstation.db=burtworld&extremesstation.station_id=438|publisher=Wunderground|access-date=16 October 2012|quote=NOTE: Pass the cursor over the subrayed record to see the source of this. "This location is probably uninhabited, but is close to the town of San Isidro de Apartaderos. {{convert|-11|°C|°F|abbr=on}} has been reported from an uninhabited high altitude at Páramo de Piedras Blancas, Mérida state."|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130706064537/http://www.wunderground.com/climate/local_extremes.asp?extremesstation.db=burtworld&extremesstation.station_id=438|archive-date=6 July 2013}}</ref>

=== Biodiversity and conservation ===
{{Main|Natural regions of Venezuela|Fauna of Venezuela|Flora of Venezuela|National symbols of Venezuela|List of birds of Venezuela|Environmental issues in Venezuela|List of national parks of Venezuela}}
[[File:Curacao-Icterus-Icterus-2013.JPG|thumb|The national animal of Venezuela is the [[Venezuelan troupial]].]]

Venezuela lies within the [[Neotropical realm]]; large portions of the country were originally covered by [[tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|moist broadleaf forests]]. One of 17 [[megadiverse countries]],<ref>{{cite news|title=South America Banks on Regional Strategy to Safeguard Quarter of Earth's Biodiversity |url=http://www.conservation.org/xp/news/press_releases/2003/091603_andean_eng.xml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031004032107/http://www.conservation.org/xp/news/press_releases/2003/091603_andean_eng.xml |archive-date=4 October 2003 |work=Conservation International |date=16 September 2003}}</ref> Venezuela's [[habitat]]s range from the Andes Mountains in the west to the Amazon Basin rainforest in the south, via extensive ''llanos'' plains and Caribbean coast in the center and the Orinoco River Delta in the east. They include [[deserts and xeric shrublands|xeric scrublands]] in the extreme northwest and coastal [[mangrove]] forests in the northeast.<ref name="LOC_2005" /> Its [[cloud forest]]s and lowland [[rainforest]]s are particularly rich.{{sfn|Dydynski|Beech|2004|p=42}}

[[fauna of Venezuela|Animals]] of Venezuela are diverse and include [[manatee]]s, [[three-toed sloth]], [[two-toed sloth]], [[Amazon river dolphin]]s, and [[Orinoco Crocodile]]s, which have been reported to reach up to {{convert|6.6|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in length. Venezuela hosts a total of 1,417 bird species, 48 of which are endemic.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lepage|first=Denis|url=http://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/checklist.jsp?lang=EN&region=ve&list=clements|title=Checklist of birds of Venezuela|website=Bird Checklists of the World|publisher=Avibase|access-date=4 May 2007|archive-date=22 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522022438/http://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/checklist.jsp?lang=EN&region=ve&list=clements|url-status=live}}</ref> Important birds include [[ibis]]es, [[osprey]]s, [[kingfisher]]s,{{sfn|Dydynski|Beech|2004|p=42}} and the yellow-orange [[Venezuelan troupial]], the national bird. Notable [[mammal]]s include the [[giant anteater]], [[jaguar]], and the [[capybara]], the world's largest [[rodent]]. More than half of Venezuelan avian and mammalian species are found in the [[Amazon Rainforest|Amazonian forests]] south of the Orinoco.<ref name="Bevilacqua_2002">{{Cite web |last1=Bevilacqua |first1=M |last2=Cardenas |first2=L |last3=Flores |first3=AL |year=2002 |title=State of Venezuela's forests: A case study of the Guayana Region |publisher=World Resources Institute |url=http://archive.wri.org/page.cfm?id=1607&z=? |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215051848/http://archive.wri.org/page.cfm?id=1607&z=%3F |archive-date=15 February 2009 |access-date=10 March 2007 |display-authors=etal |url-status=dead}}</ref>

For the fungi, an account was provided by R.W.G. Dennis<ref>Dennis, R.W.G. "Fungus Flora of Venezuela and Adjacent Countries". Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1970</ref> which has been digitized and the records made available on-line as part of the Cybertruffle Robigalia database.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cybertruffle's Robigalia – Observations of fungi and their associated organisms |publisher=cybertruffle.org.uk |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/robigalia/eng/index.htm |access-date=9 July 2011 |archive-date=29 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181229121452/http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/robigalia/eng/index.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref> That database includes nearly 3,900 species of fungi recorded from Venezuela, but is far from complete, and the true total number of fungal species already known from Venezuela is likely higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.{{sfn|''Georgia Country Study Guide Volume 1 Strategic Information and Developments'' |2013|p=36}}
[[File:Shakira posando.JPG|thumb|289x289px|Crocodile in Hato El Cedral in [[Apure State]]]]
Among plants of Venezuela, over 25,000 species of [[orchidaceae|orchids]] are found in the country's cloud forest and lowland rainforest ecosystems.{{sfn|Dydynski|Beech|2004|p=42}} These include the ''flor de mayo'' orchid (''[[Cattleya mossiae]]''), the national flower. Venezuela's national tree is the [[Tabebuia chrysantha|araguaney]]. The tops of the tepuis are also home to several carnivorous plants including the marsh pitcher plant, [[Heliamphora]], and the insectivorous bromeliad, [[Brocchinia reducta]].

Venezuela is among the top 20 countries in terms of [[endemism]].<ref name="GFW">{{cite web|title=Venezuela: Overview |publisher=Global Forest Watch |url=http://www.globalforestwatch.org/english/venezuela/ |access-date=10 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061208045046/http://www.globalforestwatch.org/english/venezuela/ |archive-date=8 December 2006}}</ref> Among its animals, 23% of [[reptile|reptilian]] and 50% of [[amphibian]] species, including the [[Mannophryne trinitatis|Trinidad poison frog]], are endemic.<ref name="GFW" /><ref>Jowers, M., & Downie, J. (2004). Distribution of the frog Mannophryne trinitatis (Anura: Dendrobatidae) in Trinidad, West Indies. ''Living World'', ''2004''.</ref> Although the available information is still very small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to Venezuela: 1334 species of fungi have been tentatively identified as possibly endemic.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/venefung/eng/endelist.htm |title=Fungi of Venezuela – potential endemics |publisher=cybertruffle.org.uk |access-date=9 July 2011 |archive-date=27 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327204413/http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/venefung/eng/endelist.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref> Some 38% of the over 21,000 plant species known from Venezuela are unique to the country.<ref name="GFW" />

Venezuela is one of the 10 most biodiverse countries on the planet, yet it is one of the leaders of deforestation due to economic and political factors. Each year, roughly 287,600 hectares of forest are permanently destroyed, and other areas are degraded by mining, oil extraction, and logging. Between 1990 and 2005, Venezuela officially lost 8.3% of its forest cover, which is about 4.3&nbsp;million ha. In response, federal protections for critical habitat were implemented; for example, 20% to 33% of forested land is protected.<ref name="Bevilacqua_2002" />  The country's [[biosphere reserve]] is part of the [[World Network of Biosphere Reserves]]; five [[wetlands]] are registered under the [[Ramsar Convention]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Peck |first=D |year=2000 |title=The Annotated Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance: Venezuela |website=The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands |publisher=Ramsar Convention Secretariat |url=http://www.ramsar.org/profile/profiles_venezuela.htm |access-date=10 March 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070211110943/http://ramsar.org/profile/profiles_venezuela.htm |archive-date = 11 February 2007}}</ref> In 2003, 70% of the nation's land was under conservation management in over 200 protected areas, including 43 national parks.<ref>{{cite web |title=Biodiversity and Protected Areas—Venezuela |year=2003 |publisher=World Resources Institute |website=EarthTrends Country Profiles |access-date=10 March 2007 |url=http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/bio_cou_862.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703053321/http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/bio_cou_862.pdf |archive-date=3 July 2007}}</ref> [[list of national parks of Venezuela|Venezuela's 43 national parks]] include Canaima National Park, [[Morrocoy National Park]], and [[Mochima National Park]]. In the far south is a reserve for the country's Yanomami tribes. Covering {{convert|32000|sqmi|km2|0|abbr=off}}, the area is off-limits to farmers, miners, and all non-Yanomami settlers.

[[File:LakeVal.jpg|thumb|[[Valencia Lake]], formerly praised by [[Alexander von Humboldt]] for its beauty, is massively polluted due to the countless sewage systems pouring residuals.<ref>Jafé, Espiño, Benítez, Gardinali (1995): Pollution chronology of Lake Valencia, Venezuela. Springer Verlag. New York Inc.</ref>]]Venezuela was one of the few countries that did not enter an [[Intended Nationally Determined Contributions|INDC]] at [[COP21]].<ref>[https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-12-08/after-two-decades-of-stumbles-carbon-market-pioneers-revving-up#media-2 Carbon Markets Are Making a Slow, But Steady, Comeback] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171002070611/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-12-08/after-two-decades-of-stumbles-carbon-market-pioneers-revving-up#media-2 |date=2 October 2017}}. [[Bloomberg.com]] (8 December 2015). Retrieved on 15 June 2016.</ref><ref>[http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/indc/Submission%20Pages/submissions.aspx INDC – Submissions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160213114249/http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/indc/Submission%20Pages/submissions.aspx |date=13 February 2016}}. .unfccc.int. Retrieved on 15 June 2016.</ref> Many terrestrial ecosystems are considered [[IUCN Red List of Ecosystems#Risk Categories|endangered]], specially the [[dry forest]] in the northern regions of the country and the [[coral reef]]s in the [[Caribbean]] coast.<ref name="Foundations">{{cite journal|display-authors=1|last1=Keith|first1=D.A.|last2=Rodríguez|first2=J.P.|last3=Rodríguez-Clark|first3=K.M.|last4=Aapala|first4=K.|last5=Alonso|first5=A.|last6=Asmussen|first6=M.|last7=Bachman|first7=S.|last8=Bassett|first8=A.|last9=Barrow|first9=E.G.|last10=Benson|first10=J.S.|last11=Bishop|first11=M.J.|last12=Bonifacio|first12=R.|last13=Brooks|first13=T.M.|last14=Burgman|first14=M.A.|last15=Comer|first15=P.|last16=Comín|first16=F.A.|last17=Essl|first17=F.|last18=Faber-Langendoen|first18=D.|last19=Fairweather|first19=P.G.|last20=Holdaway|first20=R.J.|last21=Jennings|first21=M.|last22=Kingsford|first22=R.T.|last23=Lester|first23=R.E.|last24=Mac Nally|first24=R.|last25=McCarthy|first25=M.A.|last26=Moat|first26=J.|last27=Nicholson|first27=E.|last28=Oliveira-Miranda|first28=M.A.|last29=Pisanu|first29=P.|last30=Poulin|first30=B.|last31=Riecken|first31=U.|last32=Spalding|first32=M.D.|last33=Zambrano-Martínez|first33=S.|title=Scientific Foundations for an IUCN Red List of Ecosystems|journal=PLOS ONE|date=2013|volume=8|issue=5|page=e62111|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0062111|pmid=23667454|pmc=3648534|bibcode=2013PLoSO...862111K|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Assessments |url=https://iucnrle.org/assessments/ |website=UCN Red List of Ecosystems |publisher=IUCN-CEM |access-date=22 September 2018 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922173722/https://iucnrle.org/assessments/ |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rodríguez |first1=J.P.|last2=Nassar|first2=J.M.|last3=Rodríguez-Clark|first3=K.M.|last4=Zager|first4=I. |last5=Portillo-Quintero|first5=C.A.|last6=Carrasquel|first6=F.|last7=Zambrano |first7=S.|title=Tropical dry forests in Venezuela: assessing status, threats and future prospects|journal=Environmental Conservation |volume=35|issue=4|year=2009|pages=311|issn=0376-8929|doi=10.1017/S0376892908005237 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |s2cid=85838371}}</ref>

There are 105 protected areas in Venezuela, which cover around 26% of the country's continental, marine and insular surface.{{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}

=== Hydrography ===

The country is made up of three river basins: the [[Caribbean Sea]], the Atlantic Ocean and Lake Valencia, which forms an endorheic basin.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k9aEAAAAIAAJ&q=hidrografia+venezuela|title=Anuario estadístico de Venezuela|date=2000|publisher=OCEI|language=es|access-date=7 November 2020|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129031900/https://books.google.com/books?id=k9aEAAAAIAAJ&q=hidrografia+venezuela|url-status=live}}</ref>

On the Atlantic side it drains most of Venezuela's river waters. The largest basin in this area is the extensive Orinoco basin<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kaplan|first=Joanna Overing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=unNsAAAAMAAJ&q=Orinoco+basin|title=The Piaroa, a People of the Orinoco Basin: A Study in Kinship and Marriage|date=1975|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-01-923189-3|access-date=7 November 2020|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129032020/https://books.google.com/books?id=unNsAAAAMAAJ&q=Orinoco+basin|url-status=live}}</ref> whose surface area, close to one million km<sup>2</sup>, is greater than that of the whole of Venezuela, although it has a presence of 65% in the country.

The size of this basin - similar to that of the Danube - makes it the third largest in South America, and it gives rise to a flow of some 33,000 m<sup>3</sup>/s, making the Orinoco the third largest in the world, and also one of the most valuable from the point of view of renewable natural resources. The Rio or Brazo Casiquiare is unique in the world, as it is a natural derivation of the [[Orinoco river|Orinoco]] that, after some 500&nbsp;km in length, connects it to the Negro River, which in turn is a tributary of the [[Amazon River|Amazon]]. 
[[File:LA LAGUNA VICTORIA.JPG|thumb|229x229px|Victoria Lagoon, [[Mérida (state)|Mérida State]]]]
The Orinoco receives directly or indirectly rivers such as the Ventuari, the Caura, the [[Caroní River|Caroní]], the Meta, the [[Arauca River|Arauca]], the Apure and many others. Other Venezuelan rivers that empty into the Atlantic are the waters of the San Juan and Cuyuní basins. Finally, there is the Amazon River, which receives the Guainía, the Negro and others. Other basins are the [[Gulf of Paria]] and the [[Essequibo River|Esequibo River]].
The second most important watershed is the Caribbean Sea. The rivers of this region are usually short and of scarce and irregular flow, with some exceptions such as the [[Catatumbo River|Catatumbo]], which originates in [[Colombia]] and drains into the Maracaibo Lake basin. Among the rivers that reach the Maracaibo lake basin are the Chama, the Escalante, the Catatumbo, and the contributions of the smaller basins of the Tocuyo, Yaracuy, Neverí and Manzanares rivers.

A minimum drains to the Lake Valencia basin.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Affairs (U.S.)|first1=Institute of Inter-American|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yQI9AAAAYAAJ&q=Lake+Valencia+basin&pg=PA3|title=The Lake Valencia Region in Venezuela: A Special Report|last2=Peterson|first2=Lyall E.|date=1946|publisher=Institute of Inter-American Affairs, Food Supply Division|access-date=7 November 2020|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129032007/https://books.google.com/books?id=yQI9AAAAYAAJ&q=Lake+Valencia+basin&pg=PA3#v=snippet&q=Lake%20Valencia%20basin&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Of the total extension of the rivers, a total of 5400&nbsp;km are navigable. Other rivers worth mentioning are the Apure, Arauca, Caura, Meta, Barima, [[Portuguesa River|Portuguesa]], Ventuari and Zulia, among others.[[File:Cerro Wichuj(Cara de Indio) (12111191594).jpg|thumb|Amazon [[rainforest]] and Autana River, [[Amazonas (Venezuela)|Amazonas]] state|250x250px]]The country's main lakes are Lake Maracaibo<ref>{{Cite book|last=Yegres|first=Ramón Santaella|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZNEAAAAYAAJ&q=maracaibo+lake|title=La dinámica del espacio en la cuenca del Lago de Maracaibo, 1873-1940: y su proyeccion hasta el presente, 1980|date=1989|publisher=FACES-UCV, División de Publicaciones|isbn=978-980-00-0312-1|language=es|access-date=7 November 2020|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129031902/https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZNEAAAAYAAJ&q=maracaibo+lake|url-status=live}}</ref> -the largest in South America- open to the sea through the natural channel, but with fresh water, and Lake Valencia with its endorheic system. Other noteworthy bodies of water are the [[Guri Reservoir|Guri reservoir]], the Altagracia lagoon, the Camatagua reservoir and the Mucubají lagoon in the Andes.

=== Relief ===
The Venezuelan natural [[landscape]]<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last1=Cárdenas|first1=Antonio Luis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nOgRAQAAIAAJ&q=relieve+de+venezuela+placas+tectonicas|title=Geografía de Venezuela|last2=Castillo|first2=Rubén Carpio|date=2000|publisher=Fondo Editorial de la Universidad Pedagógica Experimental Libertador|language=es|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129032404/https://books.google.com/books?id=nOgRAQAAIAAJ&q=relieve+de+venezuela+placas+tectonicas|url-status=live}}</ref> is the product of the interaction of [[tectonic plates]]<ref name=":3" /> that since the [[Paleozoic]] have contributed to its current appearance. On the formed structures, seven physical-natural units have been modeled, differentiated in their relief and in their [[natural resources]].
[[File:Flores_para_la_Nieve.JPG|thumb|[[Bolívar Peak]], the highest mountain in Venezuela, in [[Sierra Nevada National Park (Venezuela)|Sierra Nevada de Mérida]]]]
The relief of Venezuela has the following characteristics: [[coastline]] with several peninsulas<ref>{{Cite book|last=Figueroa|first=Rosa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xo3eGMm-JdQC&pg=PA24|title=Agenda Geografica Venezuela|date=1995|publisher=Editorial Alfa|isbn=978-980-354-005-0|language=es|access-date=6 November 2022|archive-date=6 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221106044531/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xo3eGMm-JdQC&pg=PA24|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[islands]], adenas of the Andes mountain range (north and northwest), Lake Maracaibo (between the chains, on the coast);<ref name=":4" /> [[Orinoco river]] delta,<ref name=":5" /> region of [[peneplain]]s and plateaus (tepui, east of the Orinoco) that together form the Guyanas massif (plateaus, southeast of the country).

The oldest rock formations in South America are found in the complex basement of the Guyanas highlands<ref name=":6" /> and in the crystalline line of the Maritime and Cordillera massifs in Venezuela. The Venezuelan part of the Guyanas [[Altiplano]] consists of a large granite block of [[gneiss]] and other crystalline [[Archean]] rocks, with underlying layers of sandstone and shale clay.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Sojo|first1=Raúl|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rWcsAQAAIAAJ|title=Venezuela al natural|last2=Castillo|first2=Horacio Biord|date=2009|publisher=Editorial Arte|isbn=978-980-6476-26-4|language=en|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=6 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221106044321/https://books.google.com/books?id=rWcsAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

The core of [[granite]] and [[cordillera]] is, to a large extent, flanked by sedimentary layers from the [[Cretaceous]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BM4UAAAAIAAJ|title=Las Microfacies Del Cretaceo de Venezuela Occidental|publisher=Brill Archive|language=es|access-date=14 June 2021|archive-date=6 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221106044320/https://books.google.com/books?id=BM4UAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> folded in an [[anticline]] structure. Between these orographic systems there are plains covered with tertiary and quaternary layers of gravel, sands and clayey [[marl]]s. The depression contains lagoons and lakes, among which is that of [[Maracaibo]], and presents, on the surface, [[alluvium|alluvial]] deposits from the [[Quaternary]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Socorro|first=Orangel Antonio Aguilera|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kIBdAAAAMAAJ|title=Tesoros paleontológicos de Venezuela: el cuaternario del Estado Falcón|date=2006|publisher=Ministerio de la Cultura|isbn=978-980-12-1379-6|language=es|access-date=14 June 2021|archive-date=6 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221106044325/https://books.google.com/books?id=kIBdAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Venezuelan Coastal Range|Coastal Mountain Range]]
Also known as the Cordillera de la Costa, stretches along Venezuela's northern coast. This region is known for its lush tropical rainforests, stunning coastal views, and a rich variety of flora and fauna. The intermountain depressions, or valleys, between the mountain ranges are often home to fertile agricultural land and vibrant communities. These valleys offer a stark contrast to the rugged mountains that rise dramatically from the coast.
*[[Coro region|Lara-Falcón Highlands]]
[[File:La vegetación más abundante señala el canal de los ríos.jpg|thumb|Los Llanos, [[Apure state]]]]
Situated in northwestern Venezuela, the Lara-Falcón Highlands exhibit a terrain defined by plateaus and rolling hills. These highlands provide a significant contrast to the surrounding lowlands and coastal areas. The relief is characterized by gently sloping plateaus that support agriculture, including coffee and cacao cultivation. This region's semi-arid climate and picturesque landscapes make it an important agricultural and tourism center.
*[[Maracaibo Basin|Lake Maracaibo Lowlands]]
Encompass the basin of [[Lake Maracaibo]] and the plains surrounding the [[Gulf of Venezuela]]. This region offers two distinct plains—the northern one is relatively dry, while the southern one is humid and dotted with swamps. The relief here is primarily characterized by flat terrain, with the exception of some elevated areas near the lake. Lake Maracaibo itself sits in a depression, surrounded by oil-rich lands and productive agricultural areas.<ref name=":4">{{cite web|title = The Water Balance of the Lake Maracaibo Basin|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0p5AAQAAIAAJ|access-date = 25 December 2020|last1 = Carter|first1 = Douglas Broadmore|year = 1946|archive-date = 6 November 2022|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221106044326/https://books.google.com/books?id=0p5AAQAAIAAJ|url-status = live}}</ref>
*[[Venezuelan Andes|The Andes]]
The Venezuelan Andes, part of the broader [[Andes]] mountain range, offer a striking relief with towering peaks, deep valleys, and fertile intermontane basins. Dominated by these corpulent mountain ranges, including Venezuela's highest peak, [[Bolívar Peak]], the region's rugged and picturesque landscapes are defined by its high-altitude terrain. 
[[File:Playa Grande in Choroni.jpg|thumb|247x247px|Coastal Mountain Range (''Cordillera de la Costa'') in Venezuela]]
The unique relief of this area finds its origins in the [[Last Glacial Period]], where the interplay of repeated glacier advances and retreats sculpted the landscape, shaped by the cold, high-altitude climate. This glacial heritage has left a lasting imprint, with glaciers carving deep valleys and polishing rugged peaks, while sheltered intramontane valleys offer fertile soils and temperate microclimates, creating ideal conditions for agriculture and human settlement.
*[[Venezuelan Llanos|Los Llanos]]
Los Llanos, or "the plains", are expansive sedimentary basins characterized by predominantly flat relief.<ref>{{cite web|title = Wild Scenes in South America|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hnAvAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA310|access-date = 25 December 2020|last1 = Páez|first1 = Ramón|year = 1863|archive-date = 6 November 2022|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221106044322/https://books.google.com/books?id=hnAvAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA310|url-status = live}}</ref> However, the eastern Llanos feature low-plateaus and the Unare depression, created through mesa erosion, adding diversity to the terrain. This region is subject to seasonal flooding, transforming the flat plains into a vast wetland during the rainy season. The relief here influences the region's unique ecosystems, including extensive grasslands and abundant wildlife.
*[[File:Vuelo Santa Elena-Canaima (2004) 23.jpg|thumb|261x261px|Guayana natural region in Venezuela]] [[Guayana natural region|Guiana Shield]]
The Guiana Shield boasts a varied relief shaped by geological processes over millions of years. This region encompasses peneplains, rugged mountain ranges, foothills, and the iconic [[tepuis]], or table-top mountains. The tepuis stand as isolated, flat-topped plateaus that rise dramatically from the surrounding terrain. This unique relief contributes to the region's remarkable biodiversity and scientific significance.<ref name=":6">{{cite book|title = Tropical Forests of the Guiana Shield|isbn = 978-1-84593-092-9|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mE88S0O6RbsC&q=Guiana+Shield+venezuela&pg=PA46|access-date = 25 December 2020|last1 = Hammond|first1 = D. S.|year = 2005|archive-date = 29 November 2023|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231129032523/https://books.google.com/books?id=mE88S0O6RbsC&q=Guiana+Shield+venezuela&pg=PA46#v=snippet&q=Guiana%20Shield%20venezuela&f=false|url-status = live}}</ref>
*[[Orinoco Delta]]
The Orinoco Delta's relief is characterized by a complex system of lands and waters. It consists of numerous channels, islands, and shifting sedimentary deposits. While the relief may appear relatively uniform, it conceals a dynamic environment influenced by seasonal flooding and sediment deposition. This complex deltaic relief supports diverse aquatic life and the livelihoods of Indigenous communities adapted to its ever-changing landscapes.<ref name=":5">{{cite web|title = Organic Geochemistry of the Orinoco Delta, Venezuela|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YPrkAAAAMAAJ|access-date = 25 December 2020|last1 = Nwachukwu|first1 = Joseph Iheanacho|year = 1981|archive-date = 6 November 2022|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221106044324/https://books.google.com/books?id=YPrkAAAAMAAJ|url-status = live}}</ref>

=== Valleys ===
[[File:Valle de Mifafí 2.jpg|Valle de Mifafí, [[Mérida State]]|thumb]]
The valleys are undoubtedly the most important type of [[landscape]] in the Venezuelan territory,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rojas|first=Arístides|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abMvAQAAMAAJ&q=valles+de+venezuela|title=Primer libro de geografía de Venezuela según Codazzi|date=1897|publisher=Santana y cia|language=es|access-date=7 June 2021|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129032524/https://books.google.com/books?id=abMvAQAAMAAJ&q=valles+de+venezuela#v=snippet&q=valles%20de%20venezuela&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> not because of their spatial extension, but because they are the environment where most of the country's population and economic activities are concentrated. On the other hand, there are valleys throughout almost all the national space, except in the great sedimentary basins of the Llanos and the depression of the [[Maracaibo Lake]], except also in the Amazonian peneplains.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Zinck|first=Alfred|title=Valles de Venezuela|url=https://library.wur.nl/isric/fulltext/isricu_i00006627_001.pdf|access-date=7 June 2021|archive-date=7 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607184129/https://library.wur.nl/isric/fulltext/isricu_i00006627_001.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> By their modeling, the valleys of the Venezuelan territory belong mainly to two types: valleys of [[fluvial]] type and valleys of [[glacial]] type.<ref>{{Cite book|last=A|first=América Bracho|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N9o7AAAAYAAJ&q=valles+de+venezuela|title=Geografía de Venezuela: III año|date=1984|publisher=Ediciones CO-BO|language=es|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129032406/https://books.google.com/books?id=N9o7AAAAYAAJ&q=valles+de+venezuela|url-status=live}}</ref> Much more frequent, the former largely dominate the latter, which are restricted to the highest parts of the Andes. Moreover, most glacial valleys are relics of a past geologic epoch, which culminated some 10,000 to 12,000 years ago.

The deep and narrow Andean valleys are very different from the wide depressions of [[Aragua]] and Carabobo, in the [[Venezuelan Coastal Range|Cordillera de la Costa]], or from the valleys nestled in the Mesas de [[Monagas]]. These examples indicate that the configuration of the local relief is decisive in identifying regional types of valleys. Likewise, due to their warm climate, the Guayana valleys are distinguished from the temperate or cold [[Andes|Andean valleys]] by their humid environment. Both are, in turn, different from the semi-arid depressions of the states of Lara and Falcón.

The Andean valleys, essentially agricultural, precociously populated but nowadays in loss of speed, do not confront the same problems of space occupation as the strongly urbanized and industrialized valleys of the central section of the Cordillera de la Costa. On the other hand, the unpopulated and practically untouched [[The Guianas|Guiana]] valleys are another category this area is called the Lost World (''Mundo Perdido'').<ref name=":1" />

The Andean valleys are undoubtedly the most impressive of the Venezuelan territory because of the energy of the encasing reliefs, whose summits often dominate the valley bottoms by 3,000 to 3,500 [[meters]] of relative [[altitude]]. They are also the most picturesque in terms of their style of habitat, forms of land use, [[handicraft]] production and all the traditions linked to these activities.<ref name=":1" />

=== Deserts ===
[[File:Medanos de Coro Falcon.jpg|thumb|[[Médanos de Coro National Park]], [[Paraguaná Peninsula]], [[Falcón|Falcón State]], Venezuela]]

Venezuela has a great diversity of landscapes and climates,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wBe4AAAAIAAJ&q=Venezuela+has+a+great+diversity+of+landscapes+and+climates|title=The Latin America & Caribbean Review|date=1986|publisher=World of Information|isbn=9780904439557|language=en|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129032522/https://books.google.com/books?id=wBe4AAAAIAAJ&q=Venezuela+has+a+great+diversity+of+landscapes+and+climates|url-status=live}}</ref> including arid and dry areas. The main [[desert]] in the country is in the state of Falcon near the city of Coro. It is now a protected park, the [[Médanos de Coro National Park]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Baño|first=Adrián Hernández|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BolrAAAAMAAJ&q=Venezuela+medanos+de+coro|title=Secretos de los Médanos de Coro|date=1986|publisher=Instituto de Cultura del Estado Falcón|isbn=978-980-6081-09-3|language=es|access-date=25 June 2021|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129032406/https://books.google.com/books?id=BolrAAAAMAAJ&q=Venezuela+medanos+de+coro|url-status=live}}</ref> The park is the largest of its kind in Venezuela, covering 91 square kilometres. The landscape is dotted with cacti and other xerophytic plants that can survive in humidity-free conditions near the desert.

Desert wildlife includes mostly lizards, [[iguanas]] and other reptiles. Although less frequent, the desert is home to some foxes, giant anteaters and rabbits. There are also some native bird populations, such as the sparrowhawk, tropical mockingbird, scaly dove and crested quail.

Other desert areas in the country include part of the Guajira Desert in the Guajira Municipality in the north of Zulia State<ref>{{Cite book|last=Salazar-Quijada|first=Adolfo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FuIKAQAAIAAJ&q=Venezuela+guajira+venezolana|title=Toponimia de la Guajira venezolana|date=1971|publisher=Universidad Católica Andrés Bello, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, Seminario de Lenguas Indígenas|language=es|access-date=25 June 2021|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129032407/https://books.google.com/books?id=FuIKAQAAIAAJ&q=Venezuela+guajira+venezolana|url-status=live}}</ref> and facing the [[Gulf of Venezuela]], the Médanos de Capanaparo<ref>{{Cite book|last=Colombo-Venezolanos|first=Venezuela Comisión Presidencial para Asuntos Fronterizos|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MVOzAAAAIAAJ&q=M%C3%A9danos+de+Capanaparo|title=Apure: diagnostico y estrategias de desarrollo fronterizo|date=1993|publisher=La Comisión|isbn=978-980-03-0130-2|language=es|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129032523/https://books.google.com/books?id=MVOzAAAAIAAJ&q=M%C3%A9danos+de+Capanaparo|url-status=live}}</ref> in the Santos Luzardo National Park in [[Apure State]], the Medanos de la Isla de Zapara<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hidrocarburos|first=Venezuela Ministerio de Minas e|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4IalPfsEpFsC&q=M%C3%A9danos+de+zapara|title=Memoria - Ministerio de Minas e Hidrocarburos|date=1962|publisher=El Ministerio.|language=es|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129032905/https://books.google.com/books?id=4IalPfsEpFsC&q=M%C3%A9danos+de+zapara|url-status=live}}</ref> in Zulia State, the so-called Hundición de Yay<ref>{{Cite book|last=Léidenz|first=Misael Salazar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=spASAQAAIAAJ&q=Hundici%C3%B3n+de+Yay|title=Venezuela en la magia, el mito y la leyenda|date=2001|publisher=Editorial Guaraira Repano|isbn=978-980-07-8548-5|language=es|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=29 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129032915/https://books.google.com/books?id=spASAQAAIAAJ&q=Hundici%C3%B3n+de+Yay|url-status=live}}</ref> in the Andrés Eloy Blanco Municipality of Lara State, and the Urumaco Formation also in Falcón State.