Editing Vampire (section)

====18th-century vampire controversy====
[[File:Dom Augustin Calmet.jpeg|thumb|upright|right|[[Dom Augustine Calmet]] (1750)]]
In the early 18th century, despite the decline of many popular folkloric beliefs during the [[Age of Enlightenment]], there was a dramatic increase in the popular belief in vampires, resulting in a mass hysteria throughout much of Europe.{{sfn|Cohen|1989|pp=271–274}} The panic began with an outbreak of alleged vampire attacks in [[East Prussia]] in 1721 and in the [[Habsburg monarchy]] from 1725 to 1734, which spread to other localities. The first infamous vampire case involved the corpses of [[Petar Blagojević]] from Serbia. Blagojević was reported to have died at the age of 62, but allegedly returned after his death asking his son for food. When the son refused, he was found dead the following day. Blagojević supposedly returned and attacked some neighbours who died from loss of blood.{{sfn|Barber|1988|pp=5–9}}

In the second case, [[Miloš Čečar]], an ex-soldier-turned-farmer who allegedly was attacked by a vampire years before, died while [[hay]]ing. After his death, people began to die in the surrounding area; it was widely believed that Miloš had returned to prey on the neighbours.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283318599|title=Vampire Evolution|last=Jøn|first=A. Asbjørn|date=2003|journal=METAphor|access-date=20 November 2015|issue=3|page=20|archive-date=12 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112222202/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283318599_Vampire_Evolution|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Barber|1988|pp=15–21}}

The Blagojević and Čečar incidents were well-documented. Government officials examined the bodies, wrote case reports, and published books throughout Europe.{{sfn|Barber|1988|pp=15–21}} The problem was exacerbated by rural epidemics of so-called vampire attacks, undoubtedly caused by the higher amount of superstition that was present in village communities, with locals digging up bodies and in some cases, staking them.{{sfn|Hoyt|1984|p=101-106}} Even government officials engaged in the hunting and staking of vampires.{{sfn|Barber|1988|pp=5–9}}

The hysteria, commonly referred to as the "vampire controversy,"<ref name="Melton1994">{{cite encyclopedia |entry=Vampire |title=The Vampire Book |author=J. Gordon Melton |publisher=Visible Ink Press |year=1994 |page=630 |url=https://archive.org/details/vampirebookencyc0000melt/page/630 |quote=the vampire controversy of the 1730s [p.467] ... the eighteenth-century vampire controversy [p. 630]}}</ref> continued for a generation. At least sixteen contemporary treatises discussed the theological and philosophical implications of the vampire epidemic.<ref name="Frayling1978">{{cite book |chapter=From the orang-utan to the vampire: towards an anthropology of Rousseau |title=Rousseau after two hundred years (Proceedings of the Cambridge Bicentennial Colloqium) |author1=Christopher Frayling |author2=Robert Wokler |editor=R. A. Leigh |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Bristol |year=1982 |page=122 |quote=For details of the sixteen formal treatises and dissertations that discussed the implications of the 1731–32 'epidemic' (most of them written by German doctors and theologians), see Tony Faivre, ''Les Vampires'' (Paris, 1962), pp. 154–9; Dieter Sturm and Klaus Völker, ''Von denen Vampiren oder Menschensaugern'' (München, 1973), pp. 519–23; and Frayling's introduction to ''The Vampyre'' (London, 1978), pp. 31–4.}}</ref>
[[Dom Augustine Calmet]], a French theologian and scholar, published a comprehensive treatise in 1751 titled ''[[Treatise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants]]'' which investigated and analysed the evidence for vampirism.{{sfn|Hoyt|1984|p=101-106}}{{efn|1=Calmet conducted extensive research and amassed judicial reports of vampiric incidents and extensively researched theological and mythological accounts as well, using the scientific method in his analysis to come up with methods for determining the validity for cases of this nature. As he stated in his treatise:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Calmet|first1=Augustin|title=Treatise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants: of Hungary, Moravia, et al. The Complete Volumes I & II. Translated by Rev Henry Christmas & Brett Warren. 2015|date=1751|isbn=978-1-5331-4568-0|pages=303–304|publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform }}</ref>

<blockquote>They see, it is said, men who have been dead for several months, come back to earth, talk, walk, infest villages, ill use both men and beasts, suck the blood of their near relations, make them ill, and finally cause their death; so that people can only save themselves from their dangerous visits and their hauntings by exhuming them, impaling them, cutting off their heads, tearing out the heart, or burning them. These revenants are called by the name of oupires or vampires, that is to say, [[leech]]es; and such particulars are related of them, so singular, so detailed, and invested with such probable circumstances and such judicial information, that one can hardly refuse to credit the belief which is held in those countries, that these revenants come out of their tombs and produce those effects which are proclaimed of them.</blockquote>}} Numerous readers, including both [[Voltaire]] (critical) and numerous [[demonologist]]s (supportive), interpreted the treatise as claiming that vampires existed.{{sfn|Hoyt|1984|p=101-106}}{{efn|1=In the ''[[Philosophical Dictionary]],'' Voltaire wrote:<ref>{{cite book|title=Philosophical Dictionary|author=Voltaire|year=1984|orig-year=1764|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-14-044257-1|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldic0000volt}}</ref>

{{blockquote|These vampires were corpses, who went out of their graves at night to suck the blood of the living, either at their throats or stomachs, after which they returned to their cemeteries. The persons so sucked waned, grew pale, and fell into [[tuberculosis|consumption]]; while the sucking corpses grew fat, got rosy, and enjoyed an excellent appetite. It was in Poland, Hungary, [[Silesia]], [[Moravia]], Austria, and [[Alsace-Lorraine|Lorraine]], that the dead made this good cheer.}} }}

The controversy in Austria ceased when Empress [[Maria Theresa]] sent her personal physician, [[Gerard van Swieten]], to investigate the claims of vampiric entities. Van Swieten concluded that vampires did not exist and the Empress passed laws prohibiting the opening of graves and the desecration of bodies, thus ending the vampire epidemic. Other European countries followed suit. Despite this condemnation, the vampire lived on in artistic works and in local folklore.{{sfn|Hoyt|1984|p=101-106}}