Editing Uthman (section)

== Caliphate ==
In about 650, Uthman began noticing slight differences in recitations of the [[Quran]] as Islam expanded beyond the [[Arabian Peninsula]] into [[Persia]], the [[Levant]], and [[North Africa]]. In order to preserve the sanctity of the text, he ordered a committee headed by [[Zayd ibn Thabit]] to use caliph [[Abu Bakr]]'s copy and prepare a standardised version of the Quran.<ref name="tabatabai5">{{cite book |last=Tabatabai |first=Sayyid M. H. |title=The Qur'an in Islam - its impact and influence on the life of Muslims |date=1987 |publisher=Zahra Publ. |isbn=978-0710302663 |url=https://archive.org/details/quraninislamitsi0000taba |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="sbukhari1">{{cite web |last=al-Bukhari |first=Muhammad |title=Sahih Bukhari, volume 6, book 61, narrations number 509 and 510 |website=sahih-bukhari.com |url=http://www.sahih-bukhari.com/Pages/Bukhari_6_61.php |date=810–870 |access-date=16 February 2018}}</ref> Thus, within 20 years of Muhammad's death, the Quran was committed to written form. That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Muslim world, with the other versions ordered to be burnt by Uthman.<ref name="tabatabai5"/><ref name="rippin">{{cite book |title=The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an |last=Rippin, Andrew |publisher=Blackwell |date=2006 |isbn=978140511752-4 |edition=[2a reimpr.] |display-authors=etal |url=https://archive.org/details/blackwellcompani00ripp_0}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Mohamad K. |last=Yusuff |title=Zayd ibn Thabit and the Glorious Qur'an |url=http://www.irfi.org/articles/articles_251_300/zayd_ibn_thabit_and_the_glorious.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Koran - A Very Short Introduction |first=Michael |last=Cook |date=2000 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=117–124 |isbn=0-19-285344-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/koranveryshorti00cook/page/117}}</ref>

While the Shī'ah use the same [[Qur'an]] as Sunni Muslims, they do not believe that it was first compiled by Uthman.<ref name="Shirazi04">{{cite book |last=Shirazi |first=Muhammad |title=The Qur'an made simple |date=2004 |publisher=Fountain Books |location=London |volume=10 |pages=xxiv}}</ref> Rather, the Shī'ah believe that the Qur'an was gathered and compiled by [[Muhammad]] during his lifetime.<ref name="Shirazi01">{{cite book |last=Shirazi |first=Muhammad |title=The Qur'an – When was it compiled? |date=2001 |publisher=Fountain Books |location=London |pages=5, 7}}</ref><ref name="Shirazi02">{{cite book |last=Shirazi |first=Muhammad |title=The Qur'an made simple |date=2004 |publisher=Fountain Books |location=London |volume=10 |pages=xxi, xxiv, xxv}}</ref><ref name="Shirazi03">{{cite book |last=Shirazi |first=Muhammad |title=The Shi'a and their Beliefs |date=2008 |publisher=Fountain Books |location=London |page=29}}</ref>

=== Economic and social administration ===
[[File:First Islamic coins by caliph Uthman-mohammad adil rais.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Arab-Sasanian coinage]] during Uthman used [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanid]] symbols ([[star and crescent]], [[fire temple]], the picture of the last emperor [[Khosrau II]]) by adding [[Basmala|Bismillah]] in [[Arabic script|Arabic]] on margin, instead of designing a new one.<ref>As the Arabs of the Ḥejāz had used the drahms of the Sasanian-style, the only silver coinage in the world at that time, it was natural for them to leave many of the Sasanian mints in operation, striking coins like those of the emperors in every detail except for the addition of brief Arabic inscriptions like besmellāh in the margins.https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-</ref>]]

Uthman was a businessman and a successful trader from his youth, which contributed greatly to the Rashidun Caliphate. Umar had established a public [[allowance (money)|allowance]] and, on assuming office, Uthman increased it by about 25%. Umar had placed a ban on the sale of lands and the purchase of [[Agriculture|agricultural]] lands in conquered territories.<ref name="Al-Islam">''A Restatement of the History of Islam and Muslims'' on [http://al-islam.org/restatement/57.htm Al-Islam.org] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004125034/http://al-islam.org/restatement/57.htm |date=4 October 2006}} referencing ''[[Al-Fitna Al-Kubra]]'' (''The Great Upheaval''), published by Dar-ul-Ma'arif, Cairo, 1959, p. 47</ref> Uthman withdrew these restrictions, as the trade could not flourish. Uthman also permitted people to draw loans from the public treasury. Under Umar, it had been laid down as a policy that the lands in conquered territories were not to be distributed among the combatants but were to remain the property of the previous owners. The army felt dissatisfied at this decision, but Umar suppressed the opposition with a strong hand. Uthman followed the policy devised by Umar and there were more conquests, and the revenues from land increased considerably.<ref name="Donner" />

Umar had been very strict in the use of money from the public treasury—indeed, apart from the meagre allowance that had been sanctioned in his favour, Umar took no money from the treasury. He did not receive any gifts, nor did he allow any of his family members to accept any gifts from any quarter. During the time of Uthman, these restrictions were relaxed. Although Uthman still drew no personal allowance from the treasury, nor did he receive a [[salary]], as he was a wealthy man with sufficient resources of his own, but, unlike Umar, Uthman accepted gifts and allowed his family members to do likewise from certain quarters.<ref name="Nectar" /> Uthman honestly expressed that he had the right to utilize the public funds according to his best judgment, and no one criticized him for that. The economic reforms introduced by Uthman had far-reaching effects; Muslims, as well as non-Muslims of the Rashidun Caliphate, enjoyed an economically prosperous life during his reign.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/coinsm1.htm |title=The Gold Coins of Muslim Rulers |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070722080357/http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/coinsm1.htm |archive-date=22 July 2007}}</ref>

=== Military expansion ===
{{Campaignbox Early Muslim Expansions}}
{{Campaignbox Arab–Byzantine Wars}}
{{Campaignbox Muslim Conquest Persia}}
{{Main|Military campaigns under Caliph Uthman}}
[[File:Mohammad adil rais-rashidun empire-at-its peak.PNG|thumb|Rashidun Caliphate at its peak under Uthman (654)]]

During his rule, Uthman's military-style was more autonomical in nature as he delegated much military authority to his trusted kinsmen – e.g., [[Abd Allah ibn Amir]], [[Mu'awiya I]] and [[Abd Allah ibn Sa'd]] – unlike [[Umar]]'s more centralized policy. Consequently, this more independent policy allowed more expansion until [[Sindh]], in modern Pakistan, which had not been touched during the tenure of Umar.<ref name="Tabri">''History of the Prophets and Kings'', (''Tarikh al-Tabari''), vol. 4, ''The Ancient Kingdoms'', p. 183.</ref> The conquest of Armenia had begun by the 640s.<ref name="middle east">{{cite book |last1=Ochsenweld |first1=William |title=The Middle East - A History |last2=Fisher |first2=Sydney Nettleton |publisher=[[McGraw Hill Education|McGraw Hill]] |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-07-244233-5 |edition=6th |location=New York |author-link2=Sydney Nettleton Fisher}}</ref>

[[Muawiyah I|Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan]] had been appointed the governor of Syria by [[Umar]] in 639 to stop Byzantine harassment from the sea during the [[Arab-Byzantine Wars]]. He succeeded his elder brother [[Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan]], who died in a plague, along with [[Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah]], the governor before him, and 25,000 other people. Now under Uthman's rule in 649, Muawiyah was allowed to set up a navy, manned by [[Monophysitism|Monophysitic Christians]], [[Copts]], and [[Jacobite Syrian Christian Church|Jacobite Syrian Christian]] sailors and Muslim troops, which defeated the Byzantine navy at the [[Battle of the Masts]] in 655, opening up the Mediterranean.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OzIRDbARyWIC&q=Muawiyah%20set%20up%20navy&pg=PA24 |title=European Naval and Maritime History, 300–1500 |first1=Archibald Ross |last1=Lewis |first2=Timothy J. |last2=Runyan |date=1990 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |via=Google Books |isbn=9780253205735}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aAPc3mYwZpIC&q=Muawiyah%20Battle%20of%20the%20Masts&pg=PA123 |title=History of the Jihad - Islam Versus Civilisation |first=Leonard Michael |last=Kroll |date=16 March 2005 |publisher=[[AuthorHouse]] |via=Google Books |isbn=9781463457303}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KIFJiOCSYc8C&q=Muawiyah%20Battle%20of%20the%20Masts&pg=PA183 |title=A History of Byzantium |first=Timothy E. |last=Gregory |date=26 August 2011 |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|John Wiley & Sons]] |via=Google Books |isbn=9781444359978}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EEEFsVYLko4C&q=Muawiyah%20Battle%20of%20the%20Masts&pg=PA61 |title=Prophets and Princes - Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the Present |first=Mark |last=Weston |date=28 July 2008 |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|John Wiley & Sons]] |via=Google Books |isbn=9780470182574}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fKFRvUiLEQYC&q=Muawiyah%20Battle%20of%20the%20Masts&pg=PA11|title=The Medieval Siege|first=Jim |last=Bradbury |date=1992 |publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer]] |via=Google Books |isbn=9780851153575}}</ref>

In [[Hijri year]] 15 ({{circa|647}}), Uthman sent [[Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr]] and [[Abd Allah ibn Sa'd]] to [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb#First invasion|reconquer the Maghreb]], where he met the army of [[Gregory the Patrician]], [[Exarch of Africa]] and relative of [[Heraclius]], which is recorded to have numbered between 120,000 and 200,000 soldiers,<ref name="Google474iHr4bQJUC">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=474iHr4bQJUC&q=abdullah+ibn+aamir+khurasan&pg=PA64 |date=1990 |title=Kisah Hidup Utsman ibn Affan citing Tarikh at Thabari and al Bidayah wal Nihayah (71/158) |page=64 |isbn=978-9790241374 |last1=Murrad |first1=Mustafa |publisher=Serambi Ilmu Semesta}}</ref> The opposing forces clashed at Sabuthilag (or [[Battle of Sufetula (647)|Sufetula]]), which became the name of this battle. Records from [[Al-Bidaya wa l-Nihaya|al-Bidayah wal Nihayah]] state that Abdullah's troops were completely surrounded by Gregory's army. However, [[Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr]] spotted Gregory in his chariot and asked [[Abd Allah ibn Sa'd]] to lead a small detachment to intercept him. The interception was successful, and Gregory was slain by Zubayr's ambush party. Consequently, the morale of Byzantine army started crumbling and soon they were routed.<ref name="Google474iHr4bQJUC" />

Some Muslim sources ([[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari]]<ref>See: ''[[History of the Prophets and Kings]]'' (''Tarikh al-Tabari)''</ref>) claim that after the conquest of northern Africa was completed, Abd Allah ibn Sa'd continued to Spain. Other prominent Muslim [[historian]]s, like [[Ibn Kathir]],<ref>See: ''[[Al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah]]'' (''Tarikh ibn Kathir'')</ref> have quoted the same narration. In the description of this campaign, two of Abd Allah ibn Sa 'd's generals, Abdullah ibn Nafiah ibn Husain and Abdullah ibn Nafi ibn Abdul Qais, were ordered to invade the coastal areas of Spain by sea, aided by a Berber force. They allegedly succeeded in conquering the coastal areas of [[Al-Andalus]]. It is not known where the Muslim force landed, what resistance they met, and what parts of Spain they actually conquered. However, it is clear that the Muslims did conquer some portion of Spain during the caliphate of Uthman, presumably establishing colonies on its coast. On this occasion, Uthman is reported to have addressed a letter to the invading force:

{{cquote|[[Constantinople]] will be conquered from the side of Al-Andalus. Thus, if you conquer it, you will have the honor of taking the first step towards the conquest of Constantinople. You will have your reward in this behalf both in this world and the next.}}

Although raids by Berbers and Muslims were conducted against the [[Visigothic Kingdom]] in Spain during the late 7th century, there is no evidence that Spain was invaded nor that parts of it were conquered or settled by Muslims prior to the 711 campaign by [[Tariq ibn Ziyad|Tariq]].

Abd Allah ibn Sa'd also achieved success in the Caliphate's first decisive naval battle against the [[Byzantine Empire]], the [[Battle of the Masts]].<ref>''Ridpath's Universal History'', Merrill & Baker, Vol. 12, New York, p. 483.</ref>

To the east, [[Ahnaf ibn Qais]], chief of [[Banu Tamim]] and a veteran commander who conquered [[Shustar]] earlier, launched a series of further military expansions by [[Battle of Oxus River|further mauling Yazdegerd III]] near [[Oxus River]] in [[Turkmenistan]]<ref name="ReferenceB">''The Muslim Conquest of Persia'' by A.I. Akram, Chapter 17 {{ISBN|0-19-597713-0}},</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Shadows in the Desert - Ancient Persia at War, by Kaveh Farrokh, published by [[Osprey Publishing]], 2007 {{ISBN|1-84603-108-7}}</ref> and later crushing a military coalition of [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid]] loyalists and [[Hephthalite Empire]] in the [[Siege of Herat (652)|Siege of Herat]].<ref name="ReferenceB" /> Later, the governor of [[Basra]], [[Abdullah ibn Aamir]] also led a number of successful campaigns, ranging from the suppression of revolts in [[Fars province|Fars]], [[Kerman]], [[Sistan]], and [[Khorasan province|Khorasan]], to the opening of new fronts for conquest in [[Transoxiana]] and Afghanistan.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uhjSiRAwGuEC&q=abdullah%20ibn%20aamir%20persia%20conquest&pg=PA207 |title=Iraq After the Muslim Conquest |first=Michael G. |last=Morony |date=2005 |publisher=[[Gorgias Press]] |via=Google Books |isbn=9781593333157}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

In the next year, in 652, [[Futuh al-Buldan]] of Baladhuri writes that [[Balochistan]] was re-conquered during the campaign against the revolt in Kermān, under the command of Majasha ibn Mas'ud. It was the first time that western Balochistan had come directly under the laws of the Caliphate and it paid an agricultural tribute.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=16yHq5v3QZAC&q=kirman+mas%27ud&pg=PA117 |last=Boyle |first=John Andrew |title=The Cambridge History of Iran |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume=5 |page=117 |date=1968 |isbn=9780521069366}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VINCAAAAYAAJ&q=Majasha+ibn+Masood |last=Daryaee |first=Touraj |title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |publisher=[[Bookland]] |page=117 |date=1977}}</ref>

The military campaigns under Uthman's rule were generally successful, except for a few in the [[Nubia]], on the lower Nile.

=== Public opposition to Uthman's policies ===
==== Reasons for the opposition ====
Noting an increase in anti-government tension around the Caliphate, Uthman's administration decided to determine its origins, extent, and aims. Some time around 654, Uthman called all twelve provincial governors to Medina to discuss the problem. During this Council of Governors, Uthman ordered that all resolutions of the council be adopted according to local circumstances. Later, in the Majlis al Shurah (council of ministers), it was suggested to Uthman that reliable agents be sent to various provinces to attempt to determine the source of the discontent. Uthman accordingly sent [[Muhammad ibn Maslamah]] to [[Kufa]], [[Usama ibn Zayd]] to [[Basra]], [[Ammar ibn Yasir]] to Egypt, and [[Abd Allah ibn Umar ibn al-Khattab|Abd Allah ibn Umar]] to Syria. The agents sent to Kufa, Basra and Syria reported that all was well – the people were generally satisfied with the administration, although some individuals had minor personal grievances. Ammar ibn Yasir, the emissary to Egypt, however, did not return to Medina. Rebels there had been issuing propaganda in favour of making Ali caliph. Ammar ibn Yasir, who had been affiliated with Ali, abandoned Uthman for the Egyptian opposition. Abd Allah ibn Sa'd, the governor of Egypt, reported about the opposition's activities instead. He wanted to take action against Ali's foster son, [[Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr]], [[Muhammad ibn Abi Hudhayfa]], Uthman's adopted son, and Ammar ibn Yasir.<ref name="CHI">''The Cambridge History of Islam'', ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and [[Bernard Lewis]], Cambridge, 1970</ref>

==== Uthman's attempts to appease the dissidents ====
In 655, Uthman directed those with any grievance against the administration, as well as the governors and "Amils" throughout the caliphate, to assemble at Mecca for the Hajj, promising that all legitimate grievances would be redressed. Accordingly, large delegations from various cities came to present their grievances before the gathering.<ref name="Aadil">''Sirat-i-Hazrat Usman-i-Ghani'', by Mohammad Alias Aadil, publishers: Mushtaq Ahmed Lahore</ref>

The rebels realised that the people in Mecca supported Uthman and were not inclined to listen to them.<ref name="Basit" /> This represented a great psychological victory for Uthman. It is said, according to Sunni Muslim accounts, that before returning to Syria, the governor [[Muawiyah I|Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan]], Uthman's cousin, suggested that Uthman should come with him to Syria as the atmosphere there was peaceful. Uthman rejected his offer, saying that he did not want to leave the city of Muhammad (''viz.'', Medina). Muawiyah then suggested that he be allowed to send a strong force from Syria to Medina to guard Uthman against any possible attempt by rebels to harm him. Uthman rejected it too, saying that the Syrian forces in Medina would be an incitement to [[civil war]], and he could not be party to such a move.<ref name="CHI" />