Editing Tiger (section)

==Behaviour and ecology==
[[File:Tigerwater edit2.jpg|thumb|upright|Tiger bathing|alt=Tiger in water]]
Camera trap data show that tigers in [[Chitwan National Park]] avoided locations frequented by people and were more active at night than during day.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carter |first1=N. H. |last2=Shrestha |first2=B. K. |last3=Karki |first3=J. B. |last4=Pradhan |first4=N. M. B. |last5=Liu|first5=J. |name-list-style=amp |year=2012 |title=Coexistence between wildlife and humans at fine spatial scales |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=38 |pages=15360–15365 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1210490109 |doi-access=free |pmid=22949642 |pmc=3458348|bibcode=2012PNAS..10915360C}}</ref>
In [[Sundarbans National Park]], six [[Radio collar|radio-collar]]ed tigers were most active from dawn to early morning and reached their zenith around 7:00 o'clock in the morning.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Naha, D. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Jhala, Y. V. |author3=Qureshi, Q. |author4=Roy, M. |author5=Sankar, K. |author6=Gopal, R. |year=2016 |title=Ranging, activity and habitat use by tigers in the mangrove forests of the Sundarban |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=11 |issue=4 |page=e0152119 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0152119 |doi-access=free |pmid=27049644 |pmc=4822765 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1152119N}}</ref>
A three-year-long camera trap survey in [[Shuklaphanta National Park]] revealed that tigers were most active from dusk until midnight.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Pokheral, C. P. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Wegge, P. |year=2019 |title=Coexisting large carnivores: spatial relationships of tigers and leopards and their prey in a prey-rich area in lowland Nepal |journal=Écoscience |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1080/11956860.2018.1491512 |bibcode=2019Ecosc..26....1P |s2cid=92446020}}</ref>
In northeastern China, tigers were [[Crepuscular animal|crepuscular]] and active at night with activity peaking at dawn and dusk; they were largely active at the same time as their prey.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Yang, H. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Han, S. |author3=Xie, B. |author4=Mou, P. |author5=Kou, X. |author6=Wang, T. |author7=Ge, J. |author8=Feng, L. |year=2019 |title=Do prey availability, human disturbance and habitat structure drive the daily activity patterns of Amur tigers (''Panthera tigris altaica'')? |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=307 |issue=2 |pages=131–140 |doi=10.1111/jzo.12622 |s2cid=92736301}}</ref>

The tiger is a powerful swimmer and easily transverses rivers as wide as {{cvt|8|km}}; it immerses in water, particularly on hot days.<ref name=Miquelle/> In general, it is less capable of climbing trees than many other cats due to its size, but cubs under 16 months old may routinely do so.{{sfn|Thapar|2004|pp=26, 64–66}} An adult was recorded climbing {{cvt|10|m}} up a smooth [[Ficus religiosa|pipal tree]].<ref name=Mazak1981/>

===Social spacing===
Adult tigers lead largely solitary lives within [[home range]]s or [[Territory (animal)|territories]], the size of which mainly depends on prey abundance, geographic area and sex of the individual. Males and females defend their home ranges from those of the same sex and the home range of a male encompasses that of multiple females.<ref name=Mazak1981/><ref name=Miquelle/> Two females in the [[Sundarbans]] had home ranges of {{cvt|10.6|and|14.1|km2}}.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Barlow, A. C. D. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Smith, J. L. D. |author3=Ahmad, I. U. |author4=Hossain, A. N. M. |author5=Rahman, M. |author6=Howlader, A. |year=2011 |title=Female tiger ''Panthera tigris'' home range size in the Bangladesh Sundarbans: the value of this mangrove ecosystem for the species' conservation |journal=Oryx |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=125–128 |doi=10.1017/S0030605310001456 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
In [[Panna Tiger Reserve]], the home ranges of five reintroduced females varied from {{cvt|53-67|km2}} in winter to {{cvt|55-60|km2}} in summer and to {{cvt|46-94|km2}} during the [[monsoon]]; three males had {{cvt|84-147|km2}} large home ranges in winter, {{cvt|82-98|km2}} in summer and {{cvt|81-118|km2}} during monsoon seasons.<ref name=Sarkar2016>{{cite journal |author1=Sarkar, M. S. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Ramesh, K. |author3=Johnson, J. A. |author4=Sen, S. |author5=Nigam, P.|author6=Gupta, S. K.|author7=Murthy, R. S. |author8=Saha, G. K. |year=2016 |title=Movement and home range characteristics of reintroduced tiger (''Panthera tigris'') population in Panna Tiger Reserve, central India |journal=European Journal of Wildlife Research |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=537–547 |doi=10.1007/s10344-016-1026-9|bibcode=2016EJWR...62..537S |s2cid=254187854}}</ref>
In [[Sikhote-Alin Biosphere Reserve]], 14 females had home ranges {{cvt|248-520|km2}} and five resident males of {{cvt|847-1923|km2}} that overlapped with those of up to five females.<ref name=Goodrich_2010>{{cite journal |author1=Goodrich, J. M. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Miquelle, D. G. |author3=Smirnov, E. M. | author4=Kerley, L. L. |author5=Quigley, H. B. |author6=Hornocker, M. G. |year=2010 |title=Spatial structure of Amur (Siberian) tigers (''Panthera tigris altaica'') on Sikhote-Alin Biosphere Zapovednik, Russia |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=91 |issue=3 |pages=737–748 |doi=10.1644/09-mamm-a-293.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref> When tigresses in the same reserve had cubs of up to four months of age, they reduced their home ranges to stay near their young and steadily enlarged them until their offspring were 13–18 months old.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Klevtcova, A. V. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Miquelle, D. G. |author3=Seryodkin, I. V. |author4=Bragina, E. V. |author5=Soutyrina, S. V. |author6=Goodrich, J. M. |year=2021 |title=The influence of reproductive status on home range size and spatial dynamics of female Amur tigers |journal=Mammal Research |volume=66 |pages=83–94 |doi=10.1007/s13364-020-00547-2}}</ref>
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The tiger is a long-ranging species and individuals disperse over distances of up to {{cvt|650|km|mi}} to reach tiger populations in other areas.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Joshi, A. |author2=Vaidyanathan, S. |author3=Mondol, S. |author4=Edgaonkar, A. |author5=Ramakrishnan, U. |year=2013 |title=Connectivity of Tiger (''Panthera tigris'') Populations in the Human-Influenced Forest Mosaic of Central India |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=e77980 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0077980 |pmid=24223132 |pmc=3819329 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...877980J |doi-access=free |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Young tigresses establish their first home ranges close to their mothers' while males migrate further than their female counterparts.{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=76}} Four [[Radio telemetry|radio-collared]] females in Chitwan dispersed between {{cvt|0|and|43.2|km|mi}} and 10 males between {{cvt|9.5|and|65.7|km}}.<ref name=Smith1993>{{cite journal |last=Smith |first=J. L. D. |year=1993 |title=The role of dispersal in structuring the Chitwan tiger population |volume=124 |journal=Behaviour |issue=3 |pages=165–195 |doi=10.1163/156853993X00560}}</ref> A subadult male lives as a transient in another male's home range until he is older and strong enough to challenge the resident male.{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=76}}{{sfn|Mills|2004|pp=54–55}} Tigers mark their home ranges by [[urine spraying|spraying urine]] on vegetation and rocks, clawing or [[scent rubbing]] trees and marking trails with [[faeces]], [[anal gland]] secretions and ground scrapings.<ref name=Miquelle/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Burger |first1=B. V. |last2=Viviers |first2=M. Z. |last3=Bekker |first3=J. P. I. |last4=Roux |first4=M. |last5=Fish |first5=N. |last6=Fourie |first6=W. B. |last7=Weibchen |first7=G. |year=2008 |title=Chemical characterization of territorial marking fluid of male Bengal tiger, ''Panthera tigris'' |journal=Journal of Chemical Ecology |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=659–671 |doi=10.1007/s10886-008-9462-y |pmid=18437496 |bibcode=2008JCEco..34..659B |hdl-access=free |hdl=10019.1/11220 |s2cid=5558760 |name-list-style=amp |url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=586948b8396932dd13d9e5a880e77cb7618a273f |access-date=29 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Smith|first1=J. L. D. |last2=McDougal|first2=C. |last3=Miquelle |first3=D. |year=1989 |title=Scent marking in free-ranging tigers, ''Panthera tigris'' |url=|journal=Animal Behaviour |volume=37|pages=1–10 |doi=10.1016/0003-3472(89)90001-8 |s2cid=53149100 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref>{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=105}} Scent markings also allow an individual to pick up information on another's identity. Unclaimed home ranges, particularly those that belonged to a deceased individual, can be taken over in days or weeks.<ref name=Miquelle/>

Male tigers are generally less tolerant of other males within their home ranges than females are of other females. Disputes are usually solved by intimidation rather than fighting. Once [[dominance (ethology)|dominance]] has been established, a male may tolerate a subordinate within his range, as long as they do not come near him. The most serious disputes tend to occur between two males competing for a female in [[oestrus]].{{sfn|Mills|2004|pp=85–86}} Though tigers mostly live alone, relationships between individuals can be complex. Tigers are particularly social at kills and a male tiger will sometimes share a carcass with the females and cubs within this home range and unlike male lions, will allow them to feed on the kill before he is finished with it. However, a female is more tense when encountering another female at a kill.{{sfn|Schaller|1967|pp=244–251}}{{sfn|Mills|2004|p=89}}

===Communication===
{{Multiple image |align= right |direction=vertical |total_width=150|image1=Panthera tigris altaica 28 - Buffalo Zoo (1).jpg|caption1=Siberian tiger baring teeth as a sign of aggression|image2=Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) vocalising.webm |caption2=Captive [[Sumatran tiger]] roaring|alt=Image of tiger barring teeth (top) and a video of one roaring at a zoo}}
During friendly encounters and bonding, tigers [[bunting (animal behavior)|rub against]] each other's bodies.{{sfn|Schaller|1967|pp=262–263}} Facial expressions include the "defence threat", which involves a wrinkled face, bared teeth, pulled-back ears and widened pupils.{{sfn|Schaller|1967|p=263}}<ref name=Mazak1981/> Both males and females show a [[flehmen response]], a characteristic curled-lip grimace, when smelling urine markings. Males also use the flehmen to detect the markings made by tigresses in oestrus.<ref name=Mazak1981/> Tigers will move their ears around to display the white spots, particularly during aggressive encounters and between mothers and cubs.<ref name=WCW/> They also use their tails to signal their mood. To show cordiality, the tail sticks up and sways slowly, while an apprehensive tiger lowers its tail or wags it side-to-side. When calm, the tail hangs low.{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=29}}

Tigers are normally silent but can produce numerous vocalisations.{{sfn|Schaller|1967|p=256}}{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=99}} They [[roar]] to signal their presence to other individuals over long distances. This vocalisation is forced through an open mouth as it closes and can be heard {{cvt|3|km}} away. They roar multiple times in a row and others respond in kind. Tigers also roar during mating and a mother will roar to call her cubs to her. When tense, tigers moan, a sound similar to a roar but softer and made when the mouth is at least partially closed. Moaning can be heard {{cvt|400|m}} away.<ref name="Mazak1981" />{{sfn|Schaller|1967|pp=258–261}} Aggressive encounters involve [[growling]], [[snarling]] and hissing.{{sfn|Schaller|1967|p=261}} An explosive "coughing roar" or "coughing snarl" is emitted through an open mouth and exposed teeth.<ref name=Mazak1981/>{{sfn|Schaller|1967|p=261}}<ref name=WCW>{{Cite book |last1=Sunquist |first1=M. E. |year=2002 |last2=Sunquist |first2=F. |name-list-style=amp |title=Wild Cats of the World |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-77999-7 |chapter=Tiger ''Panthera tigris'' (Linnaeus, 1758) |pages=343–372 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IF8nDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA320}}</ref> In friendlier situations, tigers [[prusten]], a soft, low-frequency snorting sound similar to [[purring]] in smaller cats.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1023/A:1020620121416 |year=1999| last1=Peters |first1=G. |last2=Tonkin-Leyhausen |first2=B. A. |name-list-style=amp |title=Evolution of acoustic communication signals of mammals: Friendly close-range vocalizations in Felidae (Carnivora) |journal=Journal of Mammalian Evolution |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=129–159 |s2cid=25252052}}</ref> Tiger mothers communicate with their cubs by grunting, while cubs call back with [[miaow]]s.{{sfn|Schaller|1967|pp=257–258}} When startled, they "woof". They produce a deer-like "pok" sound for unknown reasons, but most often at kills.{{sfn|Schaller|1967|pp=256–258}}{{sfn|Mills|2004|p=62}}

=== Hunting and diet ===
[[File:RANTHAMBORE TIGER RESERVE.jpg|thumb|Bengal tiger attacking a [[sambar deer]] in [[Ranthambore Tiger Reserve]]|alt=Tiger attacking a sambar deer from behind, pulling on its back]]
The tiger is a [[carnivore]] and an [[apex predator]]. [[Abundance (ecology)|Abundance]] and body weight of prey species are assumed to be the main criteria for the tiger's prey selection, both inside and outside protected areas.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Biswas, S. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Kumar, S. |author3=Bandhopadhyay, M. |author4=Patel, S. K. |author5=Lyngdoh, S. |author6=Pandav, B. |author7=Mondol, S. |year=2023 |title=What drives prey selection? Assessment of Tiger (''Panthera tigris'') food habits across the Terai-Arc Landscape, India |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1302–1316 |doi=10.1093/jmammal/gyad069}}</ref> It feeds mainly on large and medium-sized ungulates, with a preference for [[sambar deer]], [[Manchurian wapiti]], [[barasingha]], [[gaur]] and [[wild boar]].<!--Please do not add any more species to this sentence.--><ref name=Hayward>{{cite journal |last1=Hayward |first1=M. W. |last2=Jędrzejewski |first2=W. |last3=Jędrzejewska |first3=B. |year=2012 |title=Prey preferences of the tiger ''Panthera tigris''|journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=286 |issue=3 |pages=221–231 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00871.x |name-list-style=amp}}</ref><ref name=Steinmetz_al2021>{{cite journal |author1=Steinmetz, R. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Seuaturien, N. |author3=Intanajitjuy, P. |author4=Inrueang, P. |author5=Prempree, K. |year=2021 |title=The effects of prey depletion on dietary niches of sympatric apex predators in Southeast Asia |journal=Integrative Zoology |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=19–32 |doi=10.1111/1749-4877.12461 |pmid=32627329}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Variar, A. S. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Anoop, N. R. |author3=Komire, S. |author4=Vinayan, P. A. |author5=Sujin, N. S. |author6=Raj, A. |author7=Prasadan, P. K. |year=2023 |title=Prey selection by the Indian tiger (''Panthera tigris tigris'') outside protected areas in Indias Western Ghats: implications for conservation |journal=Food Webs |volume=34 |page=e00268 |doi=10.1016/j.fooweb.2022.e00268|bibcode=2023FWebs..3400268V }}</ref> It also preys opportunistically on smaller species like [[monkey]]s, [[peafowl]] and other ground-based birds, [[porcupine]]s and fish.<ref name=Mazak1981/><ref name=Miquelle/> Occasional attacks on [[Asian elephant]]s and [[Indian rhinoceros]]es have also been reported.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Karanth, K. U. |year=2003 |title=Tiger ecology and conservation in the Indian subcontinent |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=100 |issue=2 & 3 |pages=169–189 |url=http://repository.ias.ac.in/89489/1/50p.pdf}}</ref>
More often, tigers take the more vulnerable calves.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Karanth, K. U. |author2=Nichols, J. D. |name-list-style=amp |year=1998 |title=Estimation of tiger densities in India using photographic captures and recaptures |journal=Ecology |volume=79 |issue=8 |pages=2852–2862 |doi=10.1890/0012-9658(1998)079[2852:EOTDII]2.0.CO;2 |jstor=176521 |url=http://erepo.usiu.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/11732/758/Estimation%20of%20tiger%20densities%20in%20India%20using%20photographic%20captures%20and%20recaptures.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y |access-date=16 December 2021 |archive-date=27 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127044620/http://erepo.usiu.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/11732/758/Estimation%20of%20tiger%20densities%20in%20India%20using%20photographic%20captures%20and%20recaptures.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y |url-status=live}}</ref>
They sometimes prey on livestock and dogs in close proximity to settlements.<ref name=Mazak1981/> Tigers occasionally consume vegetation, fruit and minerals for [[dietary fibre]] and supplements.<ref name=Perry>{{cite book |author=Perry, R. |title=The World of the Tiger |year=1965 |publisher=Cassell |place=London |pages=133–134 |asin=B0007DU2IU}}</ref>

Tigers learn to hunt from their mothers, though the ability to hunt may be partially inborn.<ref name="Fàbregas">{{cite journal |last1=Fàbregas |first1=M. C. |last2=Fosgate|first2=G. T. |last3=Koehler |first3=G. M.|year=2015|title=Hunting performance of captive-born South China tigers (''Panthera tigris amoyensis'') on free-ranging prey and implications for their reintroduction |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=192 |pages=57–64 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2015.09.007 |bibcode=2015BCons.192...57F |hdl=2263/50208 |hdl-access=free |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Depending on the size of the prey, they typically kill weekly though mothers must kill more often.<ref name=Sunquist2010/> Families hunt together when cubs are old enough.{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=63}} They search for prey using vision and hearing.{{sfn|Schaller|1967|pp=284–285}} A tiger will also wait at a watering hole for prey to come by, particularly during hot summer days.{{sfn|Schaller|1967|p=288}}{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=120}} It is an ambush predator and when approaching potential prey, it crouches with the head lowered and hides in foliage. It switches between creeping forward and staying still. A tiger may even doze off and can stay in the same spot for as long as a day, waiting for prey and launch an attack when the prey is close enough,{{sfn|Thapar|2004|pp=119–120, 122}} usually within {{cvt|30|m}}.<ref name=Sunquist2010/> If the prey spots it before then, the cat does not pursue further.{{sfn|Schaller|1967|p=288}} A tiger can sprint {{cvt|56|km/h|mph}} and leap {{cvt|10|m}};{{sfn|Schaller|1967|p=287}}{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=23}} it is not a long-distance runner and gives up a chase if prey outpaces it over a certain distance.{{sfn|Schaller|1967|p=288}}

[[File:Tiger's killing wild boar.jpg|thumb|right|Two Bengal tigers attacking a [[wild boar]] in [[Kanha Tiger Reserve]]|alt=Two tigers attacking a boar]]
The tiger attacks from behind or at the sides and tries to knock the target off balance. It latches onto prey with its forelimbs, twisting and turning during the struggle and tries to pull it to the ground. The tiger generally applies a [[throat clamp|bite to the throat]] until its victim dies of [[strangulation]].<ref name=Mazak1981/>{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=121}}{{sfn|Schaller|1967|p=295}}{{sfn|Mills|2004|p=24}} It has an average bite force at the canine tips of 1234.3 [[Newton (unit)|newtons]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Christiansen, P. |year=2007 |title=Canine morphology in the larger Felidae: implications for feeding ecology |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=573–592 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2007.00819.x |doi-access=free}}</ref> Holding onto the throat puts the cat out of reach of horns, antlers, tusks and hooves.{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=121}}{{sfn|Schaller|1967|pp=295–296}} Tigers are adaptable killers and may use other methods, including ripping the throat or breaking the neck. Large prey may be disabled by a bite to the back of the [[Hock (anatomy)|hock]], severing the tendon. Swipes from the large paws are capable of stunning or breaking the skull of a [[water buffalo]].{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=126}} They kill small prey with a bite to the back of the neck or head.{{sfn|Schaller|1967|p=289}}<ref name=Sunquist2010/> Estimates of the [[Hunting success|success rate]] for hunting tigers range from a low of 5% to a high of 50%. They are sometimes killed or injured by large or dangerous prey like gaur, buffalo and boar.<ref name=Sunquist2010/>

Tigers typically move kills to a private, usually vegetated spot no further than {{cvt|183|m}}, though they have been recorded dragging them {{cvt|549|m}}. They are strong enough to drag the carcass of a fully grown buffalo for some distance. They rest for a while before eating and can consume as much as {{cvt|50|kg}} of meat in one session, but feed on a carcass for several days, leaving little for scavengers.{{sfn|Schaller|1967|pp=297–300}}

=== Competitors ===
[[File:Tigerdholes.jpg|thumb|An 1807 illustration of [[dholes]] attacking a tiger|alt=Painting of dhole pack attacking a tiger]]
In much of their range, tigers share habitat with leopards and [[dhole]]s. They typically dominate both of them, though with dholes it depends on their pack size. Interactions between the three predators involve chasing, [[Kleptoparasitism|stealing kills]] and direct killing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Srivathsa |first1=A. |last2=Ramachandran|first2=V. |last3=Saravanan |first3=P. |last4=Sureshbabu |first4=A. |last5=Ganguly|first5=D. |last6=Ramakrishnan |first6=U. |year=2023|title=Topcats and underdogs: intraguild interactions among three apex carnivores across Asia's forestscapes |journal=Biological Reviews|volume=98|issue=6|pages=2114–2135 |doi=10.1111/brv.12998 |pmid=37449566 |s2cid=259903849 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Large dhole packs may kill tigers.{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=136}} Tigers, leopards and dholes coexist by hunting different sized prey.<ref name=Karanth>{{cite journal |last=Karanth |first=K. U. |author2=Sunquist, M. E. |name-list-style=amp |year=2000 |title=Behavioural correlates of predation by tiger (''Panthera tigris''), leopard (''Panthera pardus'') and dhole (''Cuon alpinus'') in Nagarahole, India | journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=250 |pages=255–265 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2000.tb01076.x |issue=2}}</ref> In [[Nagarhole National Park]], the average weight for tiger kills was found to be {{cvt|91.5|kg}}, compared to {{cvt|37.6|kg}} for leopards and {{cvt|43.4|kg}} for dholes.<ref name=KaranthSunquist1995>{{cite journal |author1=Karanth, K. U. |author2=Sunquist, M. E. |name-list-style=amp |title=Prey selection by tiger, leopard and dhole in tropical forests |jstor=5647 |doi=10.2307/5647 |journal=Journal of Animal Ecology |volume=64 |issue=4 |year=1995 |pages=439–450|bibcode=1995JAnEc..64..439K}}</ref> In [[Kui Buri National Park]], following a reduction in prey numbers, tigers continued to kill favoured prey while leopards and dholes increased their consumption of small prey.<ref name=Steinmetz_al2021/>

Both leopards and dholes can live successfully in tiger habitat when there is abundant food and vegetation cover.<ref name=Karanth/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Odden, M. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Wegge, P. |author3=Fredriksen, T. |year=2010 |title=Do tigers displace leopards? If so, why? |journal=Ecological Research |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=875–881 |doi=10.1007/s11284-010-0723-1 |bibcode=2010EcoR...25..875O}}</ref> Otherwise, they appear to be less common where tigers are numerous. The recovery of the tiger population in [[Rajaji National Park]] during the 2000s led to a reduction in leopard population densities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harihar |first1=A. |last2=Pandav |first2=B. |last3=Goyal |first3=S. P. |year=2011 |title=Responses of leopard ''Panthera pardus'' to the recovery of a tiger ''Panthera tigris'' population |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=806–814 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.01981.x|doi-access=free |bibcode=2011JApEc..48..806H |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Similarly, at two sites in central India the size of dhole packs was negatively correlated with tiger densities.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Habib, B. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Nigam P. |author3=Ghaskadbi P. |author4=Bhandari A. |year=2021 |title=Dhole pack size variation: Assessing the effect of prey availability and apex predator |journal=Ecology and Evolution |volume=11 |issue=9 |pages=4774–4785 |doi=10.1002/ece3.7380 |pmid=33976847 |pmc=8093734 |bibcode=2021EcoEv..11.4774B}}</ref> Leopard and dhole distribution in Kui Buri correlated with both prey access and tiger scarcity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Steinmetz|first1=R. |last2=Seuaturien |first2=N. |last3=Chutipong|first3=W. |name-list-style=amp |year=2013|title=Tigers, leopards, and dholes in a half-empty forest: Assessing species interactions in a guild of threatened carnivores |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=163|pages=68–78 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2012.12.016|bibcode=2013BCons.163...68S }}</ref> In [[Jigme Dorji National Park]], tigers were found to inhabit the deeper parts of forests while the smaller predators were pushed closer to the fringes.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Thinley, P. |author2=Rajaratnam, R. |author3=Lassoie, J. P. |author4=Morreale, S. J. |author5=Curtis, P. D. |author6=Vernes, K. |author7=Leki Leki |author8=Phuntsho, S. |author9=Dorji, T. |author10=Dorji, P. |name-list-style=amp |year=2018 |title=The ecological benefit of tigers (''Panthera tigris'') to farmers in reducing crop and livestock losses in the eastern Himalayas: Implications for conservation of large apex predators |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=219 |pages=119–125 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2018.01.015|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018BCons.219..119T }}</ref>

=== Reproduction and life cycle ===
{{Redirect|Tiger cub|other uses|Tiger Cub (disambiguation){{!}}Tiger Cub}}
{{Featured article}}
[[File:Tigeress with cubs in Kanha Tiger reserve.jpg|thumb|A Bengal tiger family in Kanha Tiger Reserve|alt=Tiger with cubs]]

The tiger generally [[Mating|mates]] all year round, particularly between November and April. A tigress is in oestrus for three to six days at a time, separated by three to nine week intervals.<ref name=Mazak1981/> A resident male mates with all the females within his home range, who signal their receptiveness by roaring and marking.{{sfn|Mills|2004|p=42}}{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=145}} Younger, transient males are also attracted, leading to a fight in which the more dominant, resident male drives the usurper off.<ref name=Sankhala/>{{sfn|Mills|2004|p=42}} During courtship, the male is cautious with the female as he waits for her to show signs she is ready to mate. She signals to him by positioning herself in [[Lordosis behavior|lordosis]] with her tail to the side. [[Copulation (zoology)|Copulation]] typically lasts no more than 20 seconds, with the male biting the female by the scruff of her neck. After it is finished, the male quickly pulls away as the female may turn and slap him.{{sfn|Mills|2004|p=42}} Tiger pairs may stay together for up to four days and mate multiple times.{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=148}} [[Gestation]] lasts around or over three months.<ref name=Mazak1981/>

A tigress gives birth in a secluded location, be it in dense vegetation, in a cave or under a rocky shelter.{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=45}} [[Litter (zoology)|Litters]] consist of as many as seven cubs, but two or three are more typical.<ref name=Sankhala/>{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=45}} Newborn cubs weigh {{cvt|785|–|1610|g}} and are blind and [[Precociality and altriciality|altricial]].{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=45}} The mother licks and cleans her cubs, suckles them and viciously defends them from any potential threat.<ref name=Sankhala>{{cite journal |last1=Sankhala |first1=K. S. |year=1967 |title=Breeding behaviour of the tiger ''Panthera tigris'' in Rajasthan |journal=International Zoo Yearbook |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=133–147 |doi=10.1111/j.1748-1090.1967.tb00354.x}}</ref> Cubs open their eyes at the age of three to 14 days and their vision becomes clear after a few more weeks.{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=45}} They can leave the denning site after two months and around the same time they start eating meat.<ref name=Sankhala/>{{sfn|Mills|2004|pp=50–51}} The mother only leaves them alone to hunt and even then she does not travel far.{{sfn|Mills|2004|p=50}} When she suspects an area is no longer safe, she moves her cubs to a new spot, transporting them one by one by grabbing them by the scruff of the neck with her mouth.{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=51}}
A tigress in Sikhote-Alin Biosphere Reserve maximised the time spent with her cubs by reducing her home range, killing larger prey and returning to her den more rapidly than without cubs; when the cubs started to eat meat, she took them to kill sites, thereby optimising their protection and access to food.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Petrunenko, Y. K. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Seryodkin, I. V. |author3=Bragina, E. V. |author4=Soutyrina, S. S. |author5=Mukhacheva, A. S. |author6=Rybin, N. N. |author7=Miquelle, D. G.|year=2019 |title=How does a tigress balance the opposing constraints of raising cubs? |journal=Mammal Research |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=245–253 |doi=10.1007/s13364-019-00466-x}}</ref>
In the same reserve, one of 21 cubs died in over eight years of monitoring and mortality did not differ between male and female juveniles.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Robinson, H. S. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Goodrich, J. M. |author3=Miquelle, D. G. |author4=Miller, C. S. |author5=Seryodkin, I. V. |year=2015 |title=Mortality of Amur tigers: The more things change, the more they stay the same |journal=Integrative Zoology |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=344–353 |doi=10.1111/1749-4877.12147|pmid=26096683 }}</ref>
Tiger monitoring over six years in [[Ranthambore Tiger Reserve]] indicated an average annual survival rate of around 85 percent for 74 male and female cubs; survival rate increased to 97 percent for both males and female juveniles of one to two years of age.<ref name=Sadhu2017>{{cite journal |author1=Sadhu, A. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Jayam, P. P. C. |author3=Qureshi, Q. |author4=Shekhawat, R. S. |author5=Sharma, S. |author6=Jhala, Y. V. |year=2017 |title=Demography of a small, isolated tiger (''Panthera tigris tigris'') population in a semi-arid region of western India |journal=BMC Zoology |volume=2 |page=16 |doi=10.1186/s40850-017-0025-y|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Causes of cub mortality include predators, floods, fires, death of the mother and fatal injuries.{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=51}}{{sfn|Mills|2004|p=51}}<ref name=Barlow2009>{{cite journal |author1=Barlow, A. C. D. |name-list-style=amp |author2=McDougal, C. |author3=Smith, J. L. D. |author4=Gurung, B. |author5=Bhatta, S. R. |author6=Kumal, S. |author7=Mahato, B. |author8=Taman, D. B. |year=2009 |title=Temporal variation in Tiger (''Panthera tigris'') populations and its implications for monitoring |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=90 |issue=2 |pages=472–478 |doi=10.1644/07-MAMM-A-415.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=Sadhu2017/>

[[File:Panthera tigris altaica 13 - Buffalo Zoo.jpg|thumb|A Siberian tigress with her cub at [[Buffalo Zoo]]|alt=Tigress with cub in snow]]
After around two months, the cubs are able to follow their mother. They still hide in vegetation when she goes hunting. Young bond through play fighting and practice stalking. A hierarchy develops in the litter, with the biggest cub, often a male, being the most dominant and the first to eat its fill at a kill.{{sfn|Mills|2004|pp=61, 66–67}} Around the age of six months, cubs are fully weaned and have more freedom to explore their environment. Between eight and ten months, they accompany their mother on hunts.{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=63}} A cub can make a kill as early as 11 months and reach independence as a juvenile of 18 to 24 months of age; males become independent earlier than females.{{sfn|Schaller|1967|pp=270, 276}}<ref name=Sadhu2017/> Radio-collared tigers in Chitwan started leaving their natal areas at the age of 19 months.<ref name=Smith1993/> Young females are [[Sexual maturity|sexually mature]] at three to four years, whereas males are at four to five years.<ref name=Mazak1981/> [[Generation time|Generation length]] of the tiger is about 7–10 years.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Generation length for mammals |author=Pacifici, M. |author2=Santini, L. |author3=Di Marco, M. |author4=Baisero, D. |author5=Francucci, L. |author6=Grottolo Marasini, G. |author7=Visconti, P. |author8=Rondinini, C. |journal=Nature Conservation |year=2013 |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=87–94 |doi=10.3897/natureconservation.5.5734 |doi-access=free |name-list-style=amp}}</ref>
Wild Bengal tigers live 12–15 years.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Majumder, A. |year=2023 |title=Survival strategy – Temporal segregation of different age and sex classes of a Bengal tiger (''Panthera tigris tigris'' Linnaeus) population in Pench Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh India |journal=Journal of Animal Diversity |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=43–54 |doi=10.61186/JAD.2023.5.3.5 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Data from the International Tiger [[Studbook]] 1938–2018 indicate that captive tigers lived up to 19 years.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Tidière, M. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Müller, P. |author3=Sliwa, A. |author4=Siberchicot, A. |author5=Douay, G. |year=2021 |title=Sex-specific actuarial and reproductive senescence in zoo-housed tiger (''Panthera tigris''): The importance of sub-species for conservation |journal=Zoo Biology |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=320–329 |doi=10.1002/zoo.21610 |pmid=33861886 |url=https://findresearcher.sdu.dk/ws/files/182491417/zoo.21610.pdf}}</ref>

The father does not play a role in raising the young, but he encounters and interacts with them. The resident male appears to visit the female–cub families within his home range. They socialise and even share kills.{{sfn|Mills|2004|pp=59, 89}}{{sfn|Thapar|2004|pp=55–56}} One male was recorded looking after cubs whose mother had died.<ref>{{cite news |author=Pandey, G. |date=2011 |title=India male tiger plays doting dad to orphaned cubs |work=BBC News |accessdate=14 February 2024 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-13598386 |archive-date=8 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240408231242/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-13598386 |url-status=live}}</ref> By defending his home range, the male protects the females and cubs from other males.{{sfn|Mills|2004|p=59}} When a new male takes over, dependent cubs are at risk of [[Infanticide (zoology)|infanticide]] as the male attempts to sire his own young with the females.{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=66}} A seven-year long study in Chitwan National Park revealed that 12 of 56 detected cubs and juveniles were killed by new males taking over home ranges.<ref name=Barlow2009/>

=== Health and diseases ===
Tigers are recorded as hosts for various parasites including tapeworms like ''[[Diphyllobothrium]] erinacei'', ''[[Taenia pisiformis]]'' in India and [[nematode]]s like ''[[Toxocara]]'' species in India and ''[[Physaloptera]] preputialis'', ''[[Dirofilaria]] ursi'' and ''[[Uiteinarta]]'' species in Siberia.<ref name=Mazak1981/> [[Canine distemper]] is known to occur in Siberian tigers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Seimon|first1=T. A. |last2=Miquelle |first2=D. G. |last3=Chang |first3=T. Y.|last4=Newton|first4=A. L. |last5=Korotkova |first5=I. |last6=Ivanchuk |first6=G. |last7=Lyubchenko |first7=E. |last8=Tupikov |first8=A. |last9=Slabe |first9=E. |last10=McAloose |first10=D. |year=2013 |title=Canine distemper virus: an emerging disease in wild endangered Amur tigers (''Panthera tigris altaica'') |journal=mBio |volume=4 |issue=4 |doi=10.1128/mbio.00410-13 |pmid=23943758 |pmc=3747579 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> A [[morbillivirus]] infection was the likely cause of death of a tigress in the Russian Far East that was also tested positive for [[feline panleukopenia]] and [[feline coronavirus]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Quigley, K. S. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Evermann, J. F. |author3=Leathers, C. W. |author4=Armstrong, D. L. |author5=Goodrich, J. |author6=Duncan, N. M. |author7=Miquelle, D. G. |year=2010 |title=Morbillivirus infection in a wild Siberian tiger in the Russian Far East |journal=Journal of Wildlife Diseases |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=1252–1256 |doi=10.7589/0090-3558-46.4.1252 |pmid=20966275}}</ref>
Blood samples from 11 adult tigers in Nepal showed [[antibody|antibodies]] for [[canine parvovirus]]-2, [[feline herpesvirus]], feline coronavirus, [[leptospirosis]] and ''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=McCauley, D. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Stout, V. |author3=Gairhe, K. P. |author4=Sadaula, A. |author5=Dubovi, E. |author6=Subedi, S. |author7=Kaufman, G. E. |year=2021 |title=Serologic survey of selected pathogens in free-ranging Bengal tigers (''Panthera tigris tigris'') in Nepal |journal=The Journal of Wildlife Diseases |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=393–398 |doi=10.7589/JWD-D-20-00046 |doi-access=free |pmid=33822151}}</ref>