Editing Spanish–American War (section)

==Pacific theater==

===Philippines===
{{See also|Philippine Revolution}}
[[File:Pacifico-98.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The Pacific theater of the Spanish–American War]]

In the 333 years of Spanish rule, the Philippines developed from a small overseas colony governed from the Mexico-based [[Viceroyalty of New Spain]] to a land with modern elements in the cities. The Spanish-speaking middle classes of the 19th century were mostly educated in the liberal ideas coming from Europe. Among these [[Ilustrado]]s was the Filipino national hero [[José Rizal]], who demanded larger reforms from the Spanish authorities. This movement eventually led to the [[Philippine Revolution]] against Spanish colonial rule. The revolution had been in a state of [[truce]] since the signing of the [[Pact of Biak-na-Bato]] in 1897, with revolutionary leaders having accepted exile outside of the country.

Lt. William Warren Kimball, Staff Intelligence Officer with the [[Naval War College]]{{sfn|Dyal|Carpenter|Thomas|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CWaCEfeuQXkC&pg=PA180 180]}} prepared a plan for war with Spain including the Philippines on June 1, 1896, known as "the Kimball Plan".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/publications/documentary-histories/united-states-navy-s/pre-war-planning/plan-of-operations-a.html|last=Kimball|first=William W.|title=War With Spain – 1896. General Consideration of the Object of the War, the Results Desired, and the Kind of Operation to be Undertaken|date=June 1, 1896|access-date=June 30, 2020|website=history.navy.mil|archive-date=June 7, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200607004550/https://www.history.navy.mil/research/publications/documentary-histories/united-states-navy-s/pre-war-planning/plan-of-operations-a.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

On April 23, 1898, a document from [[Governor-General of the Philippines|Governor General]] [[Basilio Augustín]] appeared in the ''Manila Gazette'' newspaper warning of the impending war and calling for Filipinos to participate on the side of Spain.{{efn|{{hidden
|expanded=<!--non-empty for expanded state-->
|header=Text of the document which appeared in the ''Manila Gazette'' on April 23, 1898
|text=Further Notes:
:1. This is the English language text of the document as published by the supporting source cited, possibly as translated from the original Spanish or Tagalog. In 1898, Spanish, Tagalog, and English were official languages in the Spanish colonial Philippines.<ref>{{cite book|last=Penny|first=Ralph John|title=A History of the Spanish Language|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjcrhyQlFa0C|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521011846|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjcrhyQlFa0C&dq=spanish+philippines+"official+language"&pg=PA30 30]|access-date=December 30, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126185523/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjcrhyQlFa0C|archive-date=January 26, 2018|url-status=live|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
:2. In the Spanish colonial Philippiines, the term ''Filipino'' was reserved for full-blooded Spaniards born in the Philippines (''insulares''). Full-blooded Spaniards born in the Spanish peninsula were termed ''peninsulares''. The Filipinos that we know today were then termed ''indios''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Duka|first=Cecilio D.|title=Struggle for Freedom' 2008 Ed.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC|year=2008|publisher=Rex Bookstore, Inc.|isbn=978-9712350450|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC&dq=filipinos+indios+peninsulares&pg=PA72 72]|access-date=December 30, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226162105/https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC|archive-date=February 26, 2017|url-status=live|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Simpson|first=Andrew|title=Language and National Identity in Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F3XvBbdWCKYC|year=2007|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0191533082|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=F3XvBbdWCKYC&dq=filipino+insulares+peninsulares+indios&pg=PA363 363]|access-date=December 30, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140626071717/http://books.google.com/books?id=F3XvBbdWCKYC|archive-date=June 26, 2014|url-status=live|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

The text of the document as published in the cited source was as follows:
{{blockquote|text=OFFICE OF THE GOVERNMENT AND OF THE CAPTAIN-GENERAL OF THE PHILIPPINES

Fellow Spaniards,

Hostilities between Spain and the United States have broken out.

The moment has come for us to show the world that we are more than courageous to triumph over those, who, feigning to be loyal friends, took advantage of our misfortunes and capitalized on our nobility by making use of the means civilized nations consider as condemnable and contemptible.

The Americans, gratified with their social progress, have drained off our patience and have instigated the war through wicked tactics, treacherous acts, and violations of human rights and internal agreements.

Fighting will be short and decisive. God of victories will render this victory glorious and complete as demanded by reason and justice to our cause.

Spain, counting on the sympathies of all nations, will come out in triumph from this new test, by shattering and silencing the adventurers of those countries which, without cohesiveness and post, offer to humanity shameful traditions and the ungrateful spectacle of some embassies within which jointly dwell intrigues and defamation, cowardice and cynicism.

A US squadron, manned by strangers, by ignorant undisciplined men, is coming into the Archipelago for the purpose of grabbing from us what we consider to be our life, honor freedom. It tries to inspire (motivate) American sailors by saying that we are weak, they are encouraged to keep on with an undertaking that can be accomplished; namely of substituting the Catholic religion with Protestantism, they consider you as a people who impedes growth; they will seize your wealth as if you do not know your rights to property; they will snatch away from you those they consider as useful to man their ships, to be exploited as workers in their fields and factories.

Useless plans! Ridiculous boastings!

Your indomitable courage suffices to hold off those who dare to bring it to reality. We know you will not allow them to mock the faith you are professing, their feet to step on the temple of the true God, incredulity to demolish the sacred images you honor; you will not allow the invaders to desecrate the tombs of your forefathers; to satisfy their immodest passions at the expense of your wives and daughters' honor; you will not allow them to seize all the properties you have put up through honest work in order to assure your future; you will not allow them to commit any of those crimes inspired by their wickedness and greed, because your bravery and patriotism suffice in scaring them away and knocking down the people who, calling themselves civilized and cultured, resort to the extermination of the natives of North America instead of trying to attract them to live a civilized life and of progress.

Filipinos! Prepare yourself for the battle and united together under the glorious Spanish flag, always covered with laurels, let us fight, convinced that victory will crown our efforts and let us reply the intimations of our enemies with a decision befitting a Christian and patriot, with a cry of "Long live Spain!"

Manila, April 23, 1898

Your general
BASILO AUGISTIN<ref>{{harvnb|Saravia|Garcia|2003|pp=5–7}}</ref>}}
}}
}}

Roosevelt, who was at that time Assistant Secretary of the Navy, ordered Commodore [[George Dewey]], commanding the [[Asiatic Squadron]] of the United States Navy: "Order the squadron ...to Hong Kong. Keep full of coal. In the event of declaration of war with Spain, your duty will be to see that the Spanish squadron does not leave the Asiatic coast, and then offensive operations in Philippine Islands." Dewey's squadron departed on April 27 for the Philippines, reaching [[Manila Bay]] on the evening of April 30.<ref name=Howland1921>{{cite book|last=Howland|first=Harold|title=Theodore Roosevelt and his times: a chronicle of the progressive movement|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdA6AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA245|year=1921|page=245|isbn=978-1279815199}}</ref>

[[File:USS Olympia art NH 91881-KN cropped.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Manila Bay]]]]

[[File:Dotación de la escuadrilla en la bahía de Manila.jpg|thumb|[[Spanish Marines]] entrenched during the [[Battle of Manila Bay]]]]
The first battle between American and Spanish forces was at [[Battle of Manila Bay|Manila Bay]] where, on May 1, [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] Dewey, commanding the Asiatic Squadron aboard {{USS|Olympia|C-6|6}}, in a matter of hours defeated a Spanish [[Squadron (naval)|squadron]] under Admiral [[Patricio Montojo]].{{efn|group=lower-alpha|The American squadron consisted of nine ships: ''Olympia'' (flagship), {{USS|Boston|1884|2}}, {{USS|Baltimore|C-3|2}}, {{USS|Raleigh|C-8|2}}, {{USS|Concord|PG-3|2}}, {{USS|Petrel|PG-2|2}}, {{USS|McCulloch|1897|2}}, ''Zapphire'', and ''Nashan''. The Spanish squadron consisted of seven ships: {{ship|Spanish cruiser|Reina Cristina||2}} (flagship), {{ship|Spanish cruiser|Castilla||2}}, {{ship|Spanish cruiser|Don Juan de Austria||2}}, {{ship|Spanish cruiser|Don Antonio de Ulloa||2}}, {{ship|Spanish cruiser|Isla de Luzon||2}}, {{ship|Spanish cruiser|Isla de Cuba||2}}, and ''Marques del Duero''. The Spanish ships were of inferior quality to the American ships; ''Castilla'' was unpowered and had to be towed into position by the transport ship ''Manila''.<ref>{{harvnb|Saravia|Garcia|2003|pp=11–13, 27, 29}}</ref>}} Dewey managed this with only nine wounded.<ref>[http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq84-1.htm Battle of Manila Bay, May 1, 1898] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216154304/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq84-1.htm |date=December 16, 2014 }}, Department of the Navy – Naval Historical Center. Retrieved on October 10, 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.wtj.com/archives/dewey2.htm The Battle of Manila Bay by Admiral George Dewey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014124232/http://wtj.com/archives/dewey2.htm |date=October 14, 2007 }}, ''The War Times Journal''. Retrieved on October 10, 2007</ref> With the German seizure of [[Jiaozhou Bay Leased Territory|Qingdao]] in 1897, Dewey's squadron had become the only naval force in the Far East without a local base of its own, and was beset with coal and ammunition problems.<ref name=AHRJune1988p659>{{citation|title=American Imperialism: the Worst Chapter in Almost Any Book| author=James A. Field Jr. |journal=The American Historical Review|volume=83|issue=3|date=June 1978|page=659|doi=10.2307/1861842|jstor=1861842|publisher=American Historical Association}}</ref> Despite these problems, the Asiatic Squadron destroyed the Spanish fleet and captured Manila's harbor.<ref name=AHRJune1988p659/>

Following Dewey's victory, Manila Bay became filled with the warships of other naval powers.<ref name=AHRJune1988p659/> The German squadron of eight ships, ostensibly in Philippine waters to protect German interests, acted provocatively—cutting in front of American ships, refusing to salute the [[American flag]] (according to customs of naval courtesy), taking soundings of the harbor, and landing supplies for the besieged Spanish.{{#tag:Ref|Dewey characterized the German interests as a single import firm; Admiral [[Otto von Diederichs]] responded with a list of eleven.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wionzek|2000|p=x}}.</ref>}}

With interests of their own, Germany was eager to take advantage of whatever opportunities the conflict in the islands might afford.<ref name=Dolan1991/> There was a fear at the time that the islands would become a German possession.<ref>{{cite book|author=Susan K. Harris|title=God's Arbiters: Americans and the Philippines, 1898–1902|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7eOC4op3MKoC&pg=PA133|date= 2011|publisher=Oxford University Press, US|isbn=978-0199781072|page=133|access-date=October 31, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512103721/https://books.google.com/books?id=7eOC4op3MKoC&pg=PA133|archive-date=May 12, 2016|url-status=live|df=mdy-all}}<br />{{cite book|author1=Benjamin R. Beede|author2=Vernon L. Williams|author3=Wolfgang Drechsler|title=The War of 1898, and US Interventions, 1898–1934: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=48g116X9IIwC&pg=PA201|year=1994|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0824056247|pages=201–202|access-date=October 31, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428034511/https://books.google.com/books?id=48g116X9IIwC&pg=PA201|archive-date=April 28, 2016|url-status=live|df=mdy-all}}<br />{{cite book|author=David F. Trask|title=The War with Spain in 1898|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2f0Gf0DQfmUC&pg=PA284|year=1981|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0803294295|page=284|access-date=October 31, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426064239/https://books.google.com/books?id=2f0Gf0DQfmUC&pg=PA284|archive-date=April 26, 2016|url-status=live|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The Americans called Germany's bluff and threatened conflict if the aggression continued. The Germans backed down.<ref name=Dolan1991>
{{citation|editor-last=Dolan|editor-first=Ronald E.|url=http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/phtoc.html|title=Philippines: A Country Study|location=Washington|publisher=Library of Congress|year=1991|chapter-url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ph0023)|chapter=Historical Setting – Outbreak of War, 1898|last=Seekins <!-- chapter author -->|first=Donald M.|access-date=April 28, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150306052112/http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/phtoc.html|archive-date=March 6, 2015|url-status=live|df=mdy-all}} (LOC call Number [http://catalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?v3=1&DB=local&CMD=010a+92039812&&CNT=10+records+per+page DS655.P598 1993] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109030210/http://catalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?v3=1&DB=local&CMD=010a+92039812&&CNT=10+records+per+page |date=January 9, 2009 }})
</ref><ref>{{citation|url=http://www.manilatimes.net/national/2006/sept/21/yehey/top_stories/20060921top9.html|publisher=Manila Times|date=September 21, 2006|title=What ifs in Philippine history|author=Augusto V. de Viana|access-date=October 19, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030050605/http://www.manilatimes.net/national/2006/sept/21/yehey/top_stories/20060921top9.html|archive-date=October 30, 2007}} <br /> ^ {{citation|url=http://www.manilatimes.net/national/2006/sept/22/yehey/top_stories/20060922top9.html|date=September 22, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030050610/http://www.manilatimes.net/national/2006/sept/22/yehey/top_stories/20060922top9.html|archive-date=October 30, 2007|title=What ifs in Philippine history, Conclusion|access-date=October 19, 2007|publisher=[[Manila Times]]}}</ref> At the time, the Germans expected the confrontation in the Philippines to end in an American defeat, with the revolutionaries capturing Manila and leaving the Philippines ripe for German picking.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wionzek|2000|p=xvi}}, citing Hubatsch, Walther, ''Auslandsflotte und Reichspolitik'', Mărwissenschaftliche Rundschau (August 1944), pp. 130–53.</ref> The United States government had concerns about the self-government capability of the Filipinos, fearing that a power such as Germany or Japan might take control if the United States did not do so.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/war|title=The Philippine-American War, 1899–1902|publisher=Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State|date=n.d.|accessdate=February 4, 2024}}</ref>

Commodore Dewey transported [[Emilio Aguinaldo]], a Filipino leader who led rebellion against Spanish rule in the Philippines in 1896, from exile in Hong Kong to the Philippines to rally more Filipinos against the Spanish colonial government.<ref name="US Library of Congress" /> By June 9, Aguinaldo's forces controlled the provinces of [[Bulacan]], [[Cavite]], [[Laguna (province)|Laguna]], [[Batangas]], [[Bataan]], [[Zambales]], [[Pampanga]], [[Pangasinan]], and [[Mindoro]], and had laid siege to Manila.<ref>{{harvnb|Saravia|Garcia|2003|p=62}}</ref> On June 12, Aguinaldo proclaimed the independence of the Philippines.<ref>{{citation|chapter-url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=philamer;cc=philamer;rgn=full%20text;idno=aab1246.0001.001;didno=aab1246.0001.001;view=image;seq=00000221|chapter=Philippine Declaration of Independence|title=The laws of the first Philippine Republic (the laws of Malolos) 1898–1899|url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=philamer;iel=1;view=toc;idno=aab1246.0001.001|location=Ann Arbor, Michigan|publisher=University of Michigan Library|editor-last=Guevara|editor-first=Sulpicio|publication-date=1972|year=2005|access-date=January 2, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120065624/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=philamer;iel=1;view=toc;idno=aab1246.0001.001|archive-date=January 20, 2013|url-status=live|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="pinas">{{cite web|title=Philippine History|url=http://pinas.dlsu.edu.ph/history/history.html|publisher=DLSU-Manila|access-date=August 21, 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822045537/http://pinas.dlsu.edu.ph/history/history.html|archive-date=August 22, 2006|df=mdy-all}}</ref> While Aguinaldo's revolutionary forces were fighting, preparations were underway in the U.S. to send land forces to supplement Dewey's naval forces.<ref name=FaustCh4>{{harvnb|Faust|1899|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=l60TAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA55 55–70]}}</ref> Troops began departing San Francisco on May 25 and arriving on Manila on June 30,<ref>{{harvnb|Faust|1899|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=l60TAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA63 63]}}</ref> having been officially formed as the U.S. Army the U.S. [[Eighth Army Corps (Spanish–American War)|Eighth Army Corps]] on June 21 while they were in transit.

On August 5, upon instruction from Spain, Governor-General Basilio Augustin turned over the command of the Philippines to his deputy, Fermin Jaudenes.<ref>{{harvnb|Saravia|Garcia|2003|p=109}}</ref> On August 13, with American commanders unaware that a peace protocol had been signed between Spain and the U.S. on the previous day in Washington D.C., American forces captured the city of Manila from the Spanish in the [[Battle of Manila (1898)|Battle of Manila]].{{efn|name="Manila Protocol 13"}}<ref name="US Library of Congress"/><ref name="Flag Manila" /> This battle marked the end of Filipino–American collaboration, as the American action of preventing Filipino forces from entering the captured city of Manila was deeply resented by the Filipinos. This later led to the [[Philippine–American War]],<ref name="lac126">{{Harvnb|Lacsamana|2006|p=126}}.</ref> which would prove to be more deadly and costly than the Spanish–American War.

The U.S. had sent a force of some 11,000 ground troops to the Philippines. On August 14, 1898, Spanish Captain-General Jaudenes formally capitulated and U.S. General Merritt formally accepted the surrender and declared the establishment of a U.S. military government in occupation. The capitulation document declared, "The surrender of the Philippine Archipelago." and set forth a mechanism for its physical accomplishment.{{sfn|Foreman|1906|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=W2crAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22The%20surrender%20of%20the%20Philippine%20Archipelago.%22&pg=PA465 465]}}<ref>{{harvnb|Saravia|Garcia|2003|pp=129–37}}</ref> That same day, the [[Schurman Commission]] recommended that the U.S. retain control of the Philippines, possibly granting independence in the future.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brune|Burns|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xux-LSxSY6cC&pg=PA290 290]}}</ref> On December 10, 1898, the Spanish government ceded the Philippines to the United States in the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]]. Armed conflict broke out between U.S. forces and the Filipinos when U.S. troops began to take the place of the Spanish in control of the country after the end of the war, quickly escalating into the Philippine–American War.

===Guam===
{{Main|Capture of Guam}}
On June 20, 1898, the [[protected cruiser]] {{USS|Charleston|C-2|6}} commanded by Captain [[Henry Glass (admiral)|Henry Glass]], and three transports carrying troops to the Philippines, entered Guam's Apia Harbor. Captain Glass had opened sealed orders instructing him to proceed to [[Capture of Guam|Guam and capture it]] while en route to the Philippines. ''Charleston'' fired a few rounds at the abandoned Fort Santa Cruz without receiving return fire. Two local officials, not knowing that war had been declared and believing the firing had been a salute, came out to ''Charleston'' to apologize for their inability to return the salute as they were out of gunpowder. Glass informed them that the U.S. and Spain were at war.<ref name="208–209">{{Harvnb|Beede|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=48g116X9IIwC&pg=PA208 208–09]}}; {{Harvnb|Rogers|1995|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AEn9J3tXFS8C&pg=PA110 110–12]}}</ref>

The following day, Glass sent Lieutenant William Braunersreuther to meet the Spanish Governor to arrange the surrender of the island and the Spanish garrison there. Two officers, 54 Spanish infantrymen as well as the governor-general and his staff were taken prisoner{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} and transported to the Philippines as prisoners of war. No U.S. forces were left on Guam, but the only U.S. citizen on the island, [[Frank Portusach]], told Captain Glass that he would look after things until U.S. forces returned.<ref name="208–209"/>