Editing Sociology of sport (section)

==Body and sports==
Body became a subject of research in the 80s, with the work of [[Michel Foucault]]. For him, power is exercise in two different ways - through [[biopower]] and disciplinary power. Biopower centers on the political control of key biological aspects of the human body and whole populations, such as birth, reproduction, death, etc. Disciplinary power is exercised by means of the everyday disciplining of bodies, particularly through controlling time and space.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=The Subject and Power |first1=Michel |title=The Subject and Power |journal=Critical Inquiry |date=1982 |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=777–795 |doi=10.1086/448181 |jstor=1343197 |s2cid=55355645 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1343197 |access-date=2 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Foucault |first1=Michel |title=Power/Knowledge |date=1980 |publisher=Harvester Press |location=Brighton}}</ref>

Eichberg sees three different types of bodies as highlighting the difference between disciplined and undisciplined bodies in sport: the [[dialogic]] body, of different shapes and sizes, which are given to freeing oneself from control, and were the main type in pre-modern festivals and carnivals. The streamlined, improved body for sports accomplishment and competition. The healthy, straight body, which is shaped through disciplined regimes of [[Physical fitness|fitness]]. The grotesque body could be seen in pre-modern festivals and carnivals, i.e. [[folk wrestling]] or [[three-legged race]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eichberg |first1=Henning |editor1-last=Bale |editor1-first=John |editor2-last=Maguire |editor2-first=Joseph A. |title=The Global Sports Arena: Athletic Talent Migration in an Interdependent World |date=1994 |isbn=9780714634890 |chapter=Travelling, comparing, emigrating|publisher=F. Cass }}</ref> Modern sport pedagogy fluctuates between strictness and freedom, discipline and control, but the hierarchical relations of power and knowledge between the coach and athlete remain.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johns |first1=Jennifer S. |last2=Johns |first2=David P. |title=SURVEILLANCE, SUBJECTIVISM AND TECHNOLOGIES OF POWER: An Analysis of the Discursive Practice of High-Performance Sport |journal=International Review for the Sociology of Sport |date=2000 |volume=35 |issue=2 |doi=10.1177/101269000035002006 |s2cid=144819775 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/101269000035002006 |access-date=2 February 2021}}</ref>

Segel claimed that the cultural raise of sports reflected the wider turn of modern society toward physical expression, which revived [[militarism]], [[war]] and [[fascism]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Segel |first1=Harold B. |title=Body Ascendant: Modernism and the Physical Imperative |date=1998 |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore & London}}</ref> Some representatives of the Frankfurt school, saw sport as a cult of the fascistic idea of the body.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hoberman |first1=John M. |title=Sport and Political Ideology |date=1984 |publisher=U. of Texas Press |location=Austin |pages=244–245}}</ref> Tännsjö claimed that overly complimenting sport prowess reflects the fascistic elements in society, as it normalizes the ridicule of the weak and defeated.

===Sports and injury===
[[Prizefighting]] allows research into the violent body. Prizefighters transform their bodily capital into prizefighting capital, for the purpose of winning fame, status and wealth.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wacquant |first1=Loïc J. D. |title=The Pugilistic Point of View: How Boxers Think and Feel about Their Trade |journal=Theory and Society |date=1995 |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=66–67 |doi=10.1007/BF00993521 |jstor=657882 |s2cid=144506344 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/657882 |access-date=2 February 2021}}</ref> Their bodies are exploited by managers, of which they are aware, describing themselves alternatively as [[prostitutes]], [[slaves]] and [[stallions]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wacquant |first1=LoÏc |title=Whores, Slaves and Stallions: Languages of Exploitation and Accommodation among Boxers |journal=Body & Society |date=2001 |volume=7 |issue=2–3 |pages=181–194 |doi=10.1177/1357034X0100700210 |s2cid=144030276 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1357034X0100700210 |access-date=2 February 2021}}</ref> Prizefighters accept the routine damage their bodies sustain, while at the same time fearing the effects of such damage. A frequent response to this is attempting to turn themselves into heroic [[personalities]]. All contact sports have violence as part of strategy to a certain extent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wacquant |first1=Loic J.D. |title=Pugs at Work: Bodily Capital and Bodily Labour among Professional Boxers |journal=Body & Society |date=995 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=65–93 |doi=10.1177/1357034X95001001005 |s2cid=145591779 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1357034X95001001005 |access-date=2 February 2021}}</ref> Sports violence is not individual, but is a product of socialization. Finn see [[footballers]] as socializing into a culture of quasi-violence, which accentuates different values than those in regular life. It accepts violence as central to the game.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Messner |first1=Michael A. |title=Power at Play: Sports and the Problem of Masculinity |url=https://archive.org/details/poweratplaysport0000mess |date=1992 |publisher=Beacon Press |location=Boston |isbn=9780807041055 |page=[https://archive.org/details/poweratplaysport0000mess/page/71 71]}}</ref>

[[Physical injury]] of sportspeople can be seen through Beck's theory of a "[[risk society]]". A risk society is characterized by reflexive modernity, where members of society are well informed, critical and participate in the shaping of social structures. Unlike the routine risk of [[traditional society]], modern societies identify and minimize risks.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beck |first1=Ulrich |title=Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity |date=1992 |publisher=SAGE |location=Thousand Oaks |isbn=9781446223420}}</ref> Reflexive modernity in sports is evinced in isolation, minimizing and removal of causes of physical injury, while at the same time keeping the techniques and strategies particular to those sports. The lower classes have lower access to risk assessment and avoidance, and as such have a higher rate of participation in riskier sports.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Giulianotti |first1=Richard |title=Sport kritička sociologija |date=2008 |publisher=Clio |location=Beograd |pages=172–173}}</ref>

Despite this, athletes are still thought to ignore and attempt to overcome pain, as overcoming pain is seen as brave and heroic. The capacity of the athlete to make the body seem invincible is an integral part of sports professionalism.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Howe |first1=David |title=An ethnography of pain and injury in professional rugby union: The Case of Pontypridd RFC |journal=International Review for the Sociology of Sport |date=September 2001 |volume=36 |issue=3 |doi=10.1177/101269001036003003 |s2cid=146277415 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249733535 |access-date=2 February 2021}}</ref> This ignoring of pain is often a key part of some sport subcultures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Albert |first1=Edward |title=DEALING WITH DANGER: The Normalization of Risk in Cycling |journal=International Review for the Sociology of Sport |date=1999 |volume=34 |issue=2 |doi=10.1177/101269099034002005 |s2cid=143774370 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/101269099034002005 |access-date=2 February 2021}}</ref> Children are also often exposed to acute pain and injuries, i.e. gymnastics.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ryan |first1=Joan |title=Little Girls in Pretty Boxes: The Making and Breaking of Elite Gymnasts and Figure Skaters |date=2000 |publisher=Warner Books |location=New York |isbn=9780446676823 |page=11}}</ref>