Editing Shamash (section)

==Worship==
[[File:Ikun-Shamash.jpg|thumb|Votive figure of [[Ikun-Shamash]] from Sippar. [[British Museum]].]]
The main cult centers of the sun god were [[Larsa]] and [[Sippar]],{{sfn|Krebernik|2011|p=604}} specifically Sippar-Ahrurum (Abu Habbah).{{sfn|Asher-Greve|Westenholz|2013|p=255}} The latter city was regarded as older in Mesopotamian tradition, and in lists of temples tends to be mentioned before Larsa.{{sfn|George|1993|p=28}} In both cities, the main temple dedicated to Utu and his spouse Aya was known as Ebabbar.{{sfn|George|1993|p=69}} Less important temples dedicated to him, located in [[Girsu]] and [[Assur]], bore the same name.{{sfn|George|1993|pp=70-71}} It means "shining white house "in [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]].{{sfn|Asher-Greve|Westenholz|2013|p=255}}

The oldest attested votive objects dedicated to Utu (or Shamash) are a mace head from [[Ur]] offered by a king named Anbu or Anunbu, and a statuette from Sippar from the reign of [[Ikun-Shamash]] of [[Mari, Syria|Mari]].{{sfn|Krebernik|2011|p=608}} Both predate the [[Akkadian Empire|Sargonic period]].{{sfn|Krebernik|2011|p=608}} Evidence for the worship of Shamash in the third millennium BCE is available from the entire Akkadian-speaking area, from Mari and western Mesopotamian cities like Sippar, through [[Agade]], to the [[Diyala River|Diyala]] area.{{sfn|Woods|2005|p=29}}

Celebrations related to the sun god took place on the eighth, fifteenth, twentieth and possibly first day of each month.{{sfn|Krebernik|2011|p=604}}

===Sippar===
In the [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Early Dynastic period]] kings of Mari most likely visited the Ebabbar in Sippar to pay homage to its deity.{{sfn|Woods|2005|p=29}} In later periods, it was renovated by multiple rulers, including [[Naram-Sin of Akkad]] (who installed his daughter Šumšani as ēntum-priestess), [[Sabium]] of [[Babylon]],{{sfn|George|1993|p=70}} [[Samsu-iluna]] of Babylon, who called himself "beloved of Shamash and Aya,"{{sfn|Asher-Greve|Westenholz|2013|p=256}} one of the [[Kassites|Kassite]] rulers bearing the name Kurigalzu ([[Kurigalzu I]] or [[Kurigalzu II]]), [[Ashurbanipal]], [[Shamash-shum-ukin]], [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] and [[Nabonidus]].{{sfn|George|1993|p=70}} Many other kings are known to have patronized or visited it at some point, including [[Manishtushu]], [[Apil-Sin]], [[Hammurabi]], [[Abi-Eshuh]], [[Ammi-Ditana]], [[Ammi-Saduqa]], [[Samsu-Ditana]], [[Simbar-shipak]] and [[Nabu-apla-iddina]].{{sfn|George|1993|p=70}} In addition to Ebabbar, a [[ziggurat]] dedicated to the city's tutelary god also existed in Sippar.{{sfn|George|1993|p=115}} It was known as Ekunankuga (Siumerian: "house, pure stairway to heaven").{{sfn|George|1993|p=115}} It was rebuilt by Samsu-iluna, Ammi-Saduqa, [[Neriglissar]] and Nabonidus.{{sfn|George|1993|p=115}} The position of Sippar and its tutelary god has been compared to that of [[Nippur]] and [[Enlil]] - while both of these gods were high-ranking members of the pantheon, and their cities were centers of religious and scholarly activity, they never constituted major [[political power]]s in their own right.{{sfn|Woods|2005|p=30}}

It has been suggested that the Ebabbar in Sippar served as a treasury housing particularly rare objects, as excavations of the Neo-Babylonian level of the structure revealed a number of vases from the Early Dynastic and Sargonic periods, some with signs of repair, as well as the votive statue of Ikun-Shamash, a fragment of a monolith of Manishtushu, a [[macehead]] of [[Shar-Kali-Sharri]], a whetstone of Tukulti-Mer of [[Kingdom of Khana|Hana]], and other objects from earlier periods of Mesopotamian history.{{sfn|Woods|2004|p=42}}

A special group connected to Shamash in Sippar were women referred to as ''[[nadītu]]''.{{sfn|Harris|1975|p=307}} Their existence is particularly well attested in the Old Babylonian period,{{sfn|Sharlach|2007|p=67}} and it has been argued that the institution first developed around 1880 BCE, during the reign of [[Sumu-la-El]] of Babylon.{{sfn|Sharlach|2007|p=70}} ''Nadītu'' lived in a building referred to as ''gagûm'', conventionally translated as "[[cloister]],"{{sfn|Sharlach|2007|p=67}} and Tonia Sharlach notes they can be compared to medieval Christian [[nuns]].{{sfn|Sharlach|2007|p=68}} They are sometimes described as "priestesses" in modern literature, but while it is well attested that they were considered to be dedicated to a specific deity, there is little evidence for their involvement in religious activities other than personal prayer. It is not impossible they were understood as a fully separate social class.{{sfn|Sharlach|2007|pp=67-68}} Family background of individual ''nadītu'' varied, though they came predominantly from the higher strata of society.{{sfn|Harris|1975|p=306}} While many came from families of craftsmen, [[scribes]] or military officials, a number of them were daughters or sisters of kings.{{sfn|Sharlach|2007|p=68}} Both [[Zimri-Lim]] of Mari and Hammurabi of Babylon had ''nadītu'' of Shamash among their female family members.{{sfn|Sharlach|2007|p=68}}

A ceremony called ''lubuštu'' was established in Sippar by Nabu-apla-iddina.{{sfn|Woods|2004|p=36}} It involved providing the statues of Shamash, Aya and Bunene with new [[garments]] at specific dates throughout the year.{{sfn|Woods|2004|p=36}} Records indicate it was still celebrated in the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] period, during the reign of [[Darius the Great|Darius I]].{{sfn|Woods|2004|p=36}}

===Larsa===
The Ebabbar in Larsa is mentioned for the first time in a text from the reign [[Eannatum]].{{sfn|George|1993|p=70}} It was rebuilt, expanded or repaired by [[Ur-Nammu]] of [[Ur]], [[Zabaia|Zabaya]], [[Sin-Iddinam]], Hammurabi, one of the two rulers bearing the name Kadashman-Enlil ([[Kadashman-Enlil I]] or [[Kadashman-Enlil II]]), [[Burnaburiash I]], Nebuchadnezzar II and Nabonidus.{{sfn|George|1993|p=70}} Other rulers who have patronized it at some point include [[Gungunum]], [[Abisare]], [[Sumuel]], [[Nur-Adad]], [[Sin-Iqisham]], [[Kudur-Mabuk]], [[Warad-Sin]] and [[Rim-Sîn I]].{{sfn|George|1993|p=70}}

Odette Boivin notes that the deities of Larsa were apparently well represented in the pantheon of the [[First Sealand dynasty]].{{sfn|Boivin|2018|p=63}} She suggests that those kings might have associated their position both with Larsa and with its tutelary god.{{sfn|Boivin|2018|p=67}}

The Larsean form of the sun god was also worshiped in Uruk{{sfn|Krul|2018|p=64}} and a close connection between these two cities is well documented.{{sfn|Beaulieu|1991|p=58}} At an unknown point in time after Larsa's loss of status, possibly in the [[Kassite period]], Uruk most likely gained influence over it,{{sfn|Beaulieu|1991|p=60}} and in the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Neo-Babylonian period]], the Ebabbar was functionally a subordinate temple of [[Eanna]].{{sfn|Beaulieu|1991|p=59}} Multiple letters attest that the latter was responsible for providing commodities required for the performance of various rites in the former, for example sacrificial animals or wool for garments of divine statues of Shamash and Belet Larsa ("Lady of Larsa," most likely a title of Aya).{{sfn|Beaulieu|1991|pp=58-59}} Craftsmen employed by the Eanna were also responsible for repairing the paraphernalia of the deities of Ebabbar.{{sfn|Beaulieu|1991|p=59}} Such a situation is otherwise unknown, as each temple usually maintained its own workshop.{{sfn|Beaulieu|1991|pp=59-60}} A treasury of Shamash and Aya, distinct from that of the Eanna, is nonetheless attested.{{sfn|Beaulieu|1991|p=60}} Ebabbar most likely remained under control of the temple administration from Uruk  in the [[Hellenistic period]], though known names of the city's inhabitants from this period are predominantly Greek, rather than Mesopotamian.{{sfn|Krul|2018|p=64}}

===Other cities===
Utu was among the deities worshiped in the territory of [[Lagash]] in the [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Early Dynastic period]].{{sfn|Selz|1995|pp=285-287}} A dais dedicated to him existed in Namnuda-kigarra.{{sfn|George|1993|p=170}} It was originally erected by Eannatum, then destroyed by [[Ur-Lumma]] of [[Umma]], and finally rebuilt by [[Entemena]].{{sfn|George|1993|p=170}} It is possible that these events took place during a border conflict between Umma and Lagash.{{sfn|Selz|1995|p=287}} [[Theophoric names]] invoking Utu are well attested in texts from this area.{{sfn|Selz|1995|p=288}} Examples include Shubur-Utu, Utu-amu and Utu-kiag.{{sfn|Selz|1995|p=287}}

A temple of Utu, Ehili ("house of luxuriance") also existed in Ur.{{sfn|George|1993|p=98}} It was rebuilt by Enannatumma, the daughter of [[Ishme-Dagan]], whose inscriptions refer to it as the god's "pure storeroom."{{sfn|George|1993|p=98}} A town located near this city, most likely somewhere between it and Larsa, bore the name Kar-Shamash,{{sfn|Boivin|2018|p=63}} KAR.<sup>d</sup>UTU<sup>ki</sup>.{{sfn|Boivin|2018|p=70}} Most likely a temple dedicated to the eponymous god existed there as well.{{sfn|Boivin|2018|p=70}}

In Babylon, Shamash was worshiped in the temple Edikukalamma ("house of the judge of the land"), first attested in the Old Babylonian period and still mentioned in inscriptions from the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II.{{sfn|George|1993|p=74}} He was also one of the many gods worshiped in the [[Esagila|Esagil]] temple complex, where his seat was the E-ešbaranki ("house of decisions of heaven and the underworld").{{sfn|George|1993|p=82}} A socle dedicated to him called Edikugal ("house of the great judge") was also present in Erabriri, most likely the temple bearing this name located in Babylon{{sfn|George|1993|p=74}} which was dedicated to [[Mandanu]].{{sfn|George|1993|p=137}}

In Assur, a temple of Shamash was refounded by king [[Arik-den-ili]], though as no name is given in sources mentioning this event it is uncertain if it was identical with Ebabbar of Assur mentioned in a later topographical text.{{sfn|George|1993|p=71}} Additionally, Ehulhuldirdirra ("house of surpassing joys"), while primarily dedicated to [[Sin (mythology)|Sin]], was also associated with Shamash, as attested in building inscriptions of [[Ashur-nirari I]], [[Tukulti-Ninurta I]] and [[Ashurnasirpal II]].{{sfn|George|1993|pp=98-99}}

A sanctuary in Nippur known in Akkadian as ''bīt dalīli'', "house of fame," was jointly dedicated to [[Nisaba]], [[Kusu (goddess)|Kusu]], [[Ningal]], Shamash and Bēl-āliya.{{sfn|George|1993|p=74}}

In the Old Babylonian period, Shamash was worshiped in [[Susa]] in [[Elam]], where the local pantheon consisted out of both Elamite deities, such as [[Inshushinak]] and [[Simut (god)|Simut]], and Mesopotamian ones.{{sfn|Zadok|2018|p=154}} He appears in oath formulas and theophoric names.{{sfn|Zadok|2018|p=154}}

In Mari, Shamash was worshiped in a temple named Egirzalanki ("house of the joy of heaven and the underworld"), built by [[Yahdun-Lim]].{{sfn|George|1993|p=95}}

An inscription of Nebuchadnezzar II might indicate that the sun god's manifestation from Larsa was also worshiped in Ekarra ("house of the quay"), a temple located in [[Dilmun]], on the [[Failaka Island]], which was dedicated to the local deities [[Inzak]] and [[Meskilak]].{{sfn|George|1993|pp=107-108}}

The ''Canonical Temple List'', which dates to the Kassite period,{{sfn|George|1993|p=6}} mentions further temples, whose location is left unspecified: Eantasurra ("house which twinkles from heaven;" not to be confused with an identically named temple of [[Ningirsu]] built by [[Akurgal]] somewhere near Girsu),{{sfn|George|1993|pp=68-69}} Ekukina ("pure house, bechamber"),{{sfn|George|1993|p=115}} Enamtarkalamma ("house of the destinies of the land"){{sfn|George|1993|p=130}} and Enugalanna (reading and translation uncertain, possibly "house of the great light of heaven").{{sfn|George|1993|p=136}}
[[File:Coin of Hatra.jpg|thumb|Shamash depicted on bronze coin struck in [[Hatra]] ({{circa}} 117-138 AD)]]
In the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] period, [[Hatra]] came to be seen as a cult center of the sun god, and according to Manfred Krebernik its importance can be compared to Sippar and Larsa in earlier times.{{sfn|Krebernik|2011|p=604}}