Editing Richard I of England (section)

===In the Holy Land===
[[File:Britishmuseumrichardandsaladintiles.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|Depiction of Richard (left) and [[Saladin]] (right), {{Circa|1250–60}}, on tiles found at [[Chertsey Abbey]] in Surrey.]]
Richard landed at Acre on 8 June 1191.<ref>According to [[Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad]] on the 7th, but the ''Itinerarium'' and ''Gesta'' mention the 8th as the date of his arrival (L. Landon, ''The itinerary of King Richard I, with studies on certain matters of interest connected with his reign'', London, 1935, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=JzcIAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA50 50]</ref> He gave his support to his Poitevin [[vassal]] Guy of Lusignan, who had brought troops to help him in Cyprus. Guy was the widower of his father's cousin [[Sibylla of Jerusalem]] and was trying to retain the kingship of Jerusalem, despite his wife's death during the [[Siege of Acre (1189–1191)|Siege of Acre]] the previous year.<ref name="Gillingham 2002 148">{{Harvnb|Gillingham|2002|p=148}}</ref> Guy's claim was challenged by Conrad of Montferrat, second husband of Sibylla's half-sister, [[Isabella I of Jerusalem|Isabella]]: Conrad, whose defence of Tyre had saved the kingdom in 1187, was supported by Philip of France, son of his first cousin Louis VII of France, and by another cousin, [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria]].<ref name="Gillingham 2002 148-9">{{Harvnb|Gillingham|2002|pp=148–149}}</ref> Richard also allied with [[Humphrey IV of Toron]], Isabella's first husband, from whom she had been forcibly divorced in 1190. Humphrey was loyal to Guy and spoke Arabic fluently, so Richard used him as a translator and negotiator.<ref name="Gillingham 2002 149">{{Harvnb|Gillingham|2002|p=149}}</ref>

Richard and his forces aided in the capture of Acre, despite Richard's serious illness. At one point, while sick from ''arnaldia'', a disease similar to [[scurvy]], he picked off guards on the walls with a [[crossbow]], while being carried on a stretcher covered "in a great silken quilt".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hosler |first1=John D. |title=Siege of Acre, 1189–1191: Saladin, Richard the Lionheart, and the Battle That Decided the Third Crusade |date=2018 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-3002-3535-7 |page=119 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SspfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA119 |access-date=16 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Asbridge |first1=Thomas |title=The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land |date=2012 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-8498-3770-5 |page=294 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rK8nA9U0OE4C&pg=PT294 |access-date=16 September 2020}}</ref> Eventually, Conrad of Montferrat concluded the surrender negotiations with Saladin's forces inside Acre and raised the banners of the kings in the city. Richard quarrelled with Leopold over the deposition of Isaac Komnenos (related to Leopold's [[Byzantine]] mother) and his position within the crusade. Leopold's banner had been raised alongside the English and French standards. This was interpreted as arrogance by both Richard and Philip, as Leopold was a vassal of the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] (although he was the highest-ranking surviving leader of the imperial forces). Richard's men tore the flag down and threw it in the moat of Acre.<ref>''[[Richard Coer de Lyon]]'' II vv. 6027–6028: ''Kyng R. let breke his baner, / And kest it i''n''to þe reuer.''</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Huffman |first=Joseph Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yTaw3wmnlo8C&pg=PA138 |title=The Social Politics of Medieval Diplomacy: Anglo-German Relations (1066–1307) |year=2009 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-02418-6 |pages=138 |language=en}}</ref> Leopold left the crusade immediately. Philip also left soon afterwards, in poor health and after further disputes with Richard over the status of Cyprus (Philip demanded half the island) and the kingship of Jerusalem.<ref name="Gillingham 2002 154">{{Harvnb|Gillingham|2002|p=154.}}</ref> Richard, suddenly, found himself without allies.{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}}

Richard had kept approximately 2,700 Muslim prisoners as hostages against Saladin fulfilling all the terms of the surrender of the lands around Acre.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gillingham|2002|pp=167–171.}}</ref> Philip, before leaving, had entrusted his prisoners to Conrad, but Richard forced him to hand them over to him. Richard feared his forces being bottled up in Acre, and believed that his troops could not advance with the prisoners in train. He therefore ordered [[massacre at Ayyadieh|all the prisoners to be executed]]. He then moved south, defeating Saladin's forces at the [[Battle of Arsuf]], {{Convert|30|mi|km|-1}} north of [[Jaffa]], on 7 September 1191. Saladin attempted to harass Richard's army into breaking its formation in order to defeat it in detail. Richard maintained his army's defensive formation, however, until the [[Hospitallers]] broke ranks to charge the right wing of Saladin's forces. Richard then ordered a general counterattack, which won the battle. Arsuf was an important victory. The Muslim army was not destroyed, despite the considerable casualties it suffered, but it did [[rout]]; this was considered shameful by the Muslims and boosted the morale of the Crusaders. In November 1191, following the fall of Jaffa, the Crusader army advanced inland towards Jerusalem. The army then marched to [[Beit Nuba]], only {{convert|12|mi}} from Jerusalem. Muslim morale in Jerusalem was so low that the arrival of the Crusaders would probably have caused the city to fall quickly. However, the weather was appallingly bad, cold with heavy rain and hailstorms; this, combined with the fear that the Crusader army, if it besieged Jerusalem, might be trapped by a relieving force, led to the decision to retreat back to the coast.{{Sfn|Gillingham|1979|pp=198–200}} Richard attempted to negotiate with Saladin, but this was unsuccessful. In the first half of 1192, he and his troops refortified [[Ascalon]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}}

An election forced Richard to accept Conrad of Montferrat as King of Jerusalem, and he sold Cyprus to his defeated protégé, Guy. Only days later, on 28 April 1192, Conrad was stabbed to death by the [[Order of Assassins|Assassins]]<ref>Eddé, Anne-Marie "Saladin" trans. Jean Marie Todd Harvard University Press 2011. p. 266 {{ISBN|978-0-6740-5559-9}} "two members of the Assassin Sect, disguised as monks"</ref> before he could be crowned. Eight days later Richard's own nephew [[Henry II of Champagne]] was married to the widowed Isabella, although she was carrying Conrad's child. The murder was never conclusively solved, and Richard's contemporaries widely suspected his involvement.<ref>Wolff, Robert L., and Hazard, H. W. (1977). ''A History of the Crusades: Volume Two, The Later Crusades 1187–1311, The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison''. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 80.</ref>

The crusader army made another advance on Jerusalem, and, in June 1192, it came within sight of the city before being forced to retreat once again, this time because of dissension amongst its leaders. In particular, Richard and the majority of the army council wanted to force Saladin to relinquish Jerusalem by attacking the basis of his power through an invasion of [[Ayyubid Egypt|Egypt]]. The leader of the French contingent, [[Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy]], however, was adamant that a direct attack on Jerusalem should be made. This split the Crusader army into two factions, and neither was strong enough to achieve its objective. Richard stated that he would accompany any attack on Jerusalem but only as a simple soldier; he refused to lead the army. Without a united command the army had little choice but to retreat back to the coast.{{Sfn|Gillingham|1979|pp=209–212}}

A period of minor skirmishes with Saladin's forces commenced, punctuated by another defeat in the field for the Ayyubid army at the [[Battle of Jaffa (1192)|Battle of Jaffa]]. Baha' al-Din, a contemporary Muslim soldier and biographer of Saladin, recorded a tribute to Richard's martial prowess at this battle: "I have been assured ... that on that day the king of England, lance in hand, rode along the whole length of our army from right to left, and not one of our soldiers left the ranks to attack him. The Sultan was wroth thereat and left the battlefield in anger...".<ref>Baha' al-Din Yusuf Ibn Shaddad (also rendered Beha al-Din and Beha Ed-Din), trans. C.W. Wilson (1897) ''Saladin Or What Befell Sultan Yusuf'', Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, London.[https://archive.org/stream/libraryofpalesti13paleuoft#page/n3/mode/2up], p. 376</ref> Both sides realised that their respective positions were growing untenable. Richard knew that both Philip and his own brother John were starting to plot against him, and the morale of Saladin's army had been badly eroded by repeated defeats. However, Saladin insisted on the razing of Ascalon's fortifications, which Richard's men had rebuilt, and a few other points. Richard made one last attempt to strengthen his bargaining position by attempting to invade Egypt – Saladin's chief supply-base – but failed. In the end, time ran out for Richard. He realised that his return could be postponed no longer, since both Philip and John were taking advantage of his absence. He and Saladin finally came to a settlement on 2 September 1192. The terms provided for the destruction of Ascalon's fortifications, allowed Christian [[pilgrim]]s and merchants access to Jerusalem, and initiated a three-year truce.<ref>''Richard I''. by Jacob Abbott, New York and London Harper & Brothers 1902</ref> Richard, being ill with ''arnaldia'', left for England on 9 October 1192.<ref>Eddé, Anne-Marie "Saladin" trans. Jean Marie Todd Harvard University Press 2011. pp. 267–269. {{ISBN|978-0-6740-5559-9}}</ref>