Editing Reduplication (section)

===Indo-European===
====Proto-Indo-European====
The [[Proto-Indo-European language]] used partial reduplication of a consonant and ''e'' in many [[Proto-Indo-European verb#Stative|stative aspect]] verb forms. The perfect or preterite (past) tense of some [[Ancient Greek#Reduplication|Ancient Greek]],{{sfn|Smyth|1920|loc=[http://www.ccel.org/s/smyth/grammar/html/smyth_2Vp_uni.htm §440]: simple consonant + e}} [[Gothic language#Verbs|Gothic]], [[Latin]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Old Irish]], and [[Old Norse]] verbs preserve this reduplication:
* Ancient Greek {{lang|grc|λύω}} ''lúō'' 'I free' vs. {{lang|grc|λέλυκα}} ''léluka'' "I have freed"
* Gothic ''hald'' "I hold" vs. ''haíhald'' (''hĕhald'') "I/he held"
* Latin {{lang|la|currō}} "I run" vs. {{lang|la|cucurrī}} "I ran" or "have run"
* Old Irish {{lang|sga|maidid}} "it breaks" vs. {{lang|sga|memaid}} "it broke"
* Old Norse ''rœ'' "I row" vs. ''rera'' (''røra'') "I rowed"
* Sanskrit {{lang|sa|लिखति}} ''likhati'' 'he writes' vs. {{lang|sa|लिलेख}} ''lilekha'' "he has written" or "he wrote"
* A rare modern English reflex is ''do'' vs. ''did''

Proto-Indo-European also used reduplication for the [[Proto-Indo-European verb#Root aspect|imperfective aspect]]. Ancient Greek preserves this reduplication in the present tense of some verbs. Usually, but not always, this is reduplication of a consonant and ''i'', and contrasts with e-reduplication in the perfect:{{sfn|Smyth|1920|loc=[http://www.ccel.org/s/smyth/grammar/html/smyth_2Vp_uni.htm §447]: initial consonant + i}}

*{{lang|grc|δίδωμι}} ''dídōmi'' "I give" (present)
*{{lang|grc|δέδωκα}} ''dédōka'' "I have given" (perfect)
* *{{lang|grc|σίσδω}} ''sísdō'' → {{lang|grc|ἵζω}} ''hízō'' "I set" (present)
* *{{lang|grc|σέσδομαι}} ''sésdomai'' → {{lang|grc|ἕζομαι}} ''hézomai'' "I sit down" (present; from sd-, [[Indo-European ablaut#Ablaut in Proto-Indo-European|zero-grade]] of [[Proto-Indo-European root|root]] in *sed-os → ἕδος ''hédos'' "seat, abode")

Reduplication in nouns was rare, the best example being Proto-Indo-European ''{{PIE|*kʷé-kʷl-os}}'' '[[wheel]]' (cf. [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] ''kãklas'' 'neck', [[Sanskrit]] ''cakrá'' 'wheel', [[Greek language|Greek]] ''κύκλος'' (kýklos) 'circle'), which doubled *''kʷel-o-'' (cf. [[Old Prussian]] ''kelan'' 'wheel', [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''pêl'' 'ball'),{{sfn|Kroonen|2013|pp=264–265}} itself likely a deverbative of *''kʷelh₁-'' 'to turn'.

====English====
English has several types of reduplication, ranging from informal expressive vocabulary (the first four forms below) to grammatically meaningful forms (the last two below). See also the [[Irreversible binomial#With alliteration|alliteration section of the irreversible binomial article]] for cases like ''flip-flop'' and ''dribs and drabs''.

* '''Rhyming reduplication''': Artsy-fartsy, [[boogie-woogie]], okey-dokey, easy-peasy, hanky-panky, [[hocus-pocus]], hoity-toity, hokey-pokey, [[Holy Moly|holy moly]], [[hurdy-gurdy]], itsy-bitsy, namby-pamby, raggle-taggle, ragtag, razzle-dazzle, super-duper, teenie-weenie, willy-nilly, wingding.
* '''Exact reduplications''': Ack ack, aye-aye, back-to-back, blah-blah, boo-boo, bye-bye, chin-chin, choo-choo, chow-chow, dik-dik, doo-doo, fifty-fifty, gogo, ha ha, half-and-half, honk-honk, housey-housey, juju, klop-klop, mama, [[muumuu]], night-night, no-no, papa, pee-pee, pip-pip, [[pom-pom]], poo-poo, pooh-pooh, [[Miniature golf|putt putt]], so-so, ta-ta, there-there, tut-tut, [[Tutu (clothing)|tutu]], [[Wah-wah pedal|wah-wah]], wee-wee, [[yo-yo]]. While in many forms of English, exact reduplications can also be used to emphasise the strength of a word ("He wants it ''now'' now"), in South African English, 'now-now' means 'relatively soon'.
** lexical reduplication: 'Each-each boy take one-one chair.' [[Indian English]]
* '''[[Ablaut reduplication]]s''': In [[ablaut]] reduplications, the first vowel is almost always a [[high vowel]] or [[front vowel]] (typically ɪ as in hit) and the reduplicated vowel is a [[low vowel]] or [[back vowel]] (typically æ as in ''cat'' or ɒ as in ''top''). Examples include: bric-a-brac, chit-chat, clip-clop, ding-dong, flimflam, [[Flip-flops|flip-flop]], [[hip-hop]], jibber-jabber, kitty-cat, knick-knack, mishmash, [[ping-pong]], pitter-patter, riffraff, sing-song, slipslop, splish-splash, tick-tock, ticky-tacky, tip-top, whiff-whaff, wibble-wobble, wishy-washy, zig-zag.  Three-part ablaut sequences are less numerous, but are attested, e.g. [[tic-tac-toe]], bing-bang-boom, bish-bash-bosh, splish-splash-splosh<ref>Donka Minkova, "Ablaut reduplication in English: the criss-crossing of prosody and verbal art", ''English Language and Linguistics'' '''6''':1:133–169 (May 2002), {{doi|10.1017/S1360674302001077}}</ref> and "[[Live, Laugh, Love]]". [[Spike Milligan]]'s poem "[[On the Ning Nang Nong]]" achieves comic effect by varying the ordering of vowels in such triples: ''There's a Nong Nang Ning/Where the trees go Ping!''.
* '''[[Shm-reduplication]]''' can be used with most any word; e.g. ''baby-shmaby'', ''cancer-shmancer'' and ''fancy-shmancy''. This process is a feature of [[American English]] from [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], starting among the [[American Jews]] of [[New York City]], then the [[New York City English|New York dialect]] and then the whole country.

Of the above types, only shm-reduplication is [[Productivity (linguistics)|productive]], meaning that examples of the first three are fixed forms and new forms are not easily accepted.

* '''[[Comparative]] reduplication''': In the sentence "John's apple looked redder and redder," the reduplication of the [[comparative]] indicates that the comparative is becoming more true over time, meaning roughly "John's apple looked progressively redder as time went on."  In particular, this construction does {{em|not}} mean that John's apple is redder than some other apple, which would be a possible interpretation in the absence of reduplication, e.g. in "John's apple looked redder."  With reduplication, the comparison is of the object being compared to itself over time.  Comparative reduplication always combines the reduplicated comparative with "and".  This construction is common in speech and is used even in formal speech settings, but it is less common in formal written texts.  Although English has simple constructs with similar meanings, such as "John's apple looked ever redder," these simpler constructs are rarely used in comparison with the reduplicative form.  Comparative reduplication is fully [[Productivity (linguistics)|productive]] and clearly changes the meaning of any comparative to a temporal one, despite the absence of any time-related words in the construction.  For example, the temporal meaning of "The frug seemed wuggier and wuggier" is clear: despite not knowing what a frug is or what wugginess is, it is easy to grasp that the apparent wugginess of the frug was increasing over time, as indicated by the reduplication of the comparative "wuggier".{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}
* '''[[Contrastive focus reduplication]]''': Exact reduplication can be used with contrastive focus (generally where the first noun is [[Stress (linguistics)|stressed]]) to indicate a literal, as opposed to figurative, example of a noun, or perhaps a sort of [[Platonic idealism|Platonic ideal]] of the noun, as in "Is that carrot ''cheese''cake or carrot ''cake'' cake?".{{sfn|Ghomeshi|Jackendoff|Rosen|Russell|2004}} This is similar to the Finnish use mentioned above. Furthermore, it is used to contrast "real" or "pure" things against imitations or less pure forms. For example, at a coffee shop one may be asked, "Do you want soy milk?" and respond, "No, I want ''milk'' milk." This gives the idea that they want "real" milk.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}
* Intensificatory reduplication: Examples like ''a big, big problem,'' ''a long, long way'', or ''very very difficult'' are instances of intensificatory reduplication. This type of reduplication is used to intensify the meaning of the original word.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Watt |first=W. C. |date=1968 |title=English Reduplication |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/007542426800200109 |journal=Journal of English Linguistics |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=96–122 |doi=10.1177/007542426800200109 |s2cid=220752157 |issn=0075-4242}}</ref> It's a way of expressing that something is not just big or long, but very big or very long. This type of reduplication is typically used only with a narrow range of words, and the meaning can often be inferred even if the specific combination is not a standard idiomatic expression. The more common items include [[Comparison (grammar)|gradable]] adjectives (e.g., ''big'', ''great'', ''deep'', ''bad'', ''old''), along with intensificatory adverbs (e.g., ''very'', ''really'', ''so'') and determiners (e.g., ''much''). This is only possible for pre-head [[Grammatical modifier|modifiers]], and not with other [[Grammatical relation|syntactic functions]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Huddleston |first1=Rodney |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781316423530/type/book |title=The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language |last2=Pullum |first2=Geoffrey K. |date=2002-04-15 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43146-0 |edition=1 |pages=561 |doi=10.1017/9781316423530}}</ref> For example, ''a long long way'' is fine, but ''*the way is long long'' is ungrammatical, and ''I really really want it'' but not ''*I want it really really''.

The [[double is]]—such as "What I want is, is to go home"—is in some cases a type of reduplication, which may be regarded as non-standard or incorrect.

More can be learned about English reduplication in {{harvtxt|Thun|1963}}, {{harvtxt|Cooper|Ross|1975}}, and {{harvtxt|Nevins|Vaux|2003}}.

====Dutch====

While not common in Dutch, reduplication does exist. Most, but not all (e.g., ''pipi'', ''blauwblauw'' (laten), ''taaitaai'' (gingerbread)) reduplications in Dutch are [[loanword]]s (e.g., ''koeskoes'', ''bonbon'', (ik hoorde het) ''via via'') or imitative (e.g., ''tamtam'', ''tomtom'').{{sfn|Gilbers|2009}} Another example is a former safe sex campaign slogan in Flanders: ''Eerst bla-bla, dan boem-boem'' (''First talk, then have sex''; lit. ''First blah-blah, then boom-boom''). In Dutch the verb "gaan" (''to go'') can be used as an auxiliary verb, which can lead to a triplication: ''we gaan (eens) gaan gaan'' (we are going to get going). The use of ''gaan'' as an auxiliary verb with itself is considered incorrect, but is commonly used in Flanders.{{sfn|Taal.vrt.be|1999}} Numerous examples of reduplication in Dutch (and other languages) are discussed by Daniëls (2000).

====Afrikaans====
[[Afrikaans]] makes use of reduplication to emphasize the meaning of the word repeated and to denote a plural or event happening in more than one place.  For example, ''krap'' means "to scratch one's self," while ''krap-krap-krap'' means "to scratch one's self vigorously",{{sfn|van der Walt|2002}} whereas "dit het plek-plek gereën" means "it rained here and there".{{sfn|Botha|1984}} Reduplication in Afrikaans has been described extensively in the literature – see for example {{harvtxt|Botha|1988}}, {{harvtxt|Van Huyssteen|2004}} and {{harvtxt|Van Huyssteen|Wissing|2007}}. Further examples of this include: "koes" (to dodge) being reduplicated in the sentence "Piet hardloop koes-koes weg" (Piet is running away while constantly dodging / cringing); "sukkel" (to struggle) becoming "sukkel-sukkel" (making slow progress; struggling on); and "kierang" (to cheat) becoming "kierang-kierang" to indicate being cheated on repeatedly.{{sfn|Mount Allison University}}

====Romance====
In [[Italian language|Italian]] reduplication was used both to create new words or word associations (''tran-tran'', ''via via'', ''leccalecca'') and to intensify the meaning (''piano piano'' "very softly").{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}}

Common in [[Mediterranean Lingua Franca|Lingua Franca]], particularly but not exclusively for onomatopoeic action descriptions:
''Spagnoli venir...boum boum...andar; Inglis venir...boum boum bezef...andar; Francés venir...tru tru tru...chapar.'' ("The Spaniards came, cannonaded, and left. The English came, cannonaded heavily, and left. The French came, trumpeted on bugles, and captured it."){{sfn|Corré|2005}}

Common uses for reduplication in [[French language|French]] are the creation of [[hypocoristic]]s for [[French names|names]], whereby ''Louise'' becomes ''Loulou'', and [[Zinedine Zidane]] becomes ''Zizou''; and in many nursery words, like ''dada'' 'horsie' (vs. ''cheval'' 'horse'), ''tati/tata'' 'auntie' (vs. ''tante'' 'aunt'), or ''tonton'' 'unkie' (vs. ''oncle'' 'uncle').

In [[Romanian language|Romanian]] and [[Catalan language|Catalan]], reduplication is not uncommon and it has been used for both the creation of new words (including many from [[onomatopoeia]]) and expressions, for example,
*Romanian: ''mormăi'', ''țurțur'', ''dârdâi'', expressions ''talmeș-balmeș'', ''harcea-parcea'', ''terchea-berchea'', ''țac-pac'', ''calea-valea'', ''hodoronc-tronc''.
*Catalan: ''així així, aixina aixana, balandrim-balandram, baliga-balaga, banzim-banzam, barliqui-barloqui, barrija-barreja, bitllo-bitllo, bub-bub, bum-bum, but-but, catric-catrac, cloc-cloc, cloc-piu, corre-corrents, de nyigui-nyogui, farrigo-farrago, flist-flast, fru-fru, gara-gara, gloc-gloc, gori-gori, leri-leri, nap-buf, ning-nang, ning-ning, non-non, nyam-nyam, nyau-nyau, nyec-nyec, nyeu-nyeu, nyic-nyic, nyigo-nyigo, nyigui-nyogui, passa-passa, pengim-penjam, pif-paf, ping-pong, piu-piu, poti-poti, rau-rau, ringo-rango, rum-rum, taf-taf, tam-tam, tau-tau, tic-tac, tol·le-tol·le, tric-trac, trip-trap, tris-tras, viu-viu, xano-xano, xau-xau, xerric-xerrac, xim-xim, xino-xano, xip-xap, xiu-xiu, xup-xup, zig-zag, ziga-zaga, zim-zam, zing-zing, zub-zub, zum-zum''.

====Slavic====

The [[reduplication in the Russian language]] serves for various kinds of intensifying of the meaning and exists in several forms: a [[hyphenated]] or repeated [[word]] (either exact or inflected reduplication), and forms similar to [[shm-reduplication]].{{sfn|Voinov|2012}}

====Celtic====
Reduplication is a common feature of [[Irish language|Irish]] and includes the examples ''rírá'', ''ruaille buaille'' both meaning "commotion" and ''fite fuaite'' meaning "intertwined".{{sfn|''Pota Focal''|loc=[http://www.potafocal.com/gt/?s=fite+fuaite "fite fuaite"]}}

====Indo-Aryan====
Typically all Indo-Aryan languages, like [[Hindi]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] and [[Bengali language|Bengali]] use partial or [[Echo word|echoic reduplication]] in some form or the other. It is usually used to sound casual, or in a suggestive manner. It is often used to mean ''etcetera''. For example, in Hindi, chai-shai (''chai'' means tea, while this phrase means tea or any other supplementary drink or tea along with snacks). Quite common in casual conversations are a few more examples like shopping-wopping, khana-wana.
South Asian Indo Aryan languages are also rich in other forms of reduplication: morphological (expressives), lexical (distributives), and phrasal (aspectual).
*morphological:
{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|मनात {हूर हूर} दाटून येते |c1={{sfn|Kulkarni|2013}}
|manaa-t hur-hur daaT.un yete
|mind-in longing choking comes
|'Yearning desire floods into my heart.' [[Marathi language|Marathi]]}}

Reduplication also occurs in the 3rd ''[[Sanskrit verbs|gaṇa]]'' (verb class) of the Sanskrit language: ''bibheti'' "he fears", ''bibharti'' "he bears", ''juhoti'' "he offers", ''dadāti'', "he gives". Even though the general idea is to reduplicate the verb root as a prefix, several sandhi rules change the outcome.

There are a number of constructions in Hindi and Urdu that are constructed by reduplication. Nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, pronouns, all have possibility of reduplications.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Montaut |first=Annie |date=2009 |editor-last=Singh |editor-first=Rajendra |title=Reduplication and echo words in Hindi/Urdu |url=https://shs.hal.science/halshs-00449691/document |journal=Annual Review of South Asian Languages and Linguistics}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=matthewjmiller07|date=2015-02-11|title=Reduplication Reduplication in Hindi (Matthew Miller's Morphological Musings)|url=https://lisatravis2012.wordpress.com/2015/02/11/reduplication-reduplication-in-hindi-matthew-millers-morphological-musings/|access-date=2020-10-23|website=Morphology 440 640|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sharma |first=Dipti Misra |date=2012-12-08 |title=Introduction to Morphology, Syntax and Lexical Semantics of Hindi and Urdu |url=https://verbs.colorado.edu/hindiurdu/tutorial_slides/2-hindi-urdu-linguistics-dipti.pptx.pdf |website=verbs.colorado.edu}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
!(1) Reduplication of numbers
!(2) Reduplication of pronouns
|-
|{{interlinear
  |{baccõ ko} ek-ek tɔfī do.
  |children.DAT one-one.REDUP toffee give.IMP
  |give <u>a</u> toffee <u>to each</u> child, <u>one toffee per child</u>.}}
|{{interlinear
  |tumne kyā-kyā dekhā?
  |you.ERG what-what.REDUP saw.MASC.PRF?
  |<u>what (all things)</u> did you see?}}
|-
|{{interlinear
  |{bacce-bacce ko} pacās-pacās tɔfiyā̃ milī̃.
  |child-child.DAT fifty-fifty toffees received.PRF.FEM.PL
  |<u>each and every child</u> received <u>50 toffees each</u>}}
|{{interlinear
  |jo-jo āẽge unhẽ kɛhnā.
  |who-who.NOM will-come them.DAT say.IMP.FUT
  |say to <u>whoever</u> will come <u>(to all and every visitor)</u>}}
|-
!(3) Reduplication of nouns
!(4) Reduplication of adjectives
|-
|{{interlinear
  |baccā-baccā jāntā hai.
  |child-child.NOM know.PTCP be.3.PRES?
  |<u>(each and) every</u> child knows.}}
|{{interlinear
  |ye garm-garm cāy piyo.
  |this hot-hot tea drink.2.IMP
  |drink this <u>hot</u> tea. (emphasis on hotness)}}
|-
|{{interlinear
  |cāy-śāy {ho jāye?}
  |tea-tea.NOM happen.PRF.SG.SUBJ?
  |shall we have a cup of tea? (emphasis on meeting <u>over tea</u>)}}
|{{interlinear
  |udhar harī-harī ghās hai.
  |{tither/that way} green-green grass be.3.PRS
  |there is <u>(so much)</u> green grass that way/over there. (emphasis on the quantity)}}
|-
!(5) Reduplication of verbs
!(6) Reduplication of adverbs
|-
|{{interlinear
  |khāte-khāte mat bolo.
  |eat-eat.PTCP.IPFV not talk.2.IMP
  |do not talk <u>while eating</u>.}}
|{{interlinear
  |kal-kal mẽ {hī ho jāyegā.}
  |tomorrow-tomorrow.LOC happen.3.FUT.PRF {}
  |It'll be done <u>before tomorrow ends</u>.}}
|-
|{{interlinear
  |soye-soye {mar gaye.}
  |sleep-sleep.PTCP.PRF die.PRF.MASC.PL
  |he died <u>while sleeping</u> / he died <u>in his sleep</u>.}}
|{{interlinear
  |cillāyī {zor-zor se.}
  |shouted.PRF.SG.FEM loud-loud.INST
  |she shouted <u>loudly</u>. (emphasis on the loudness)}}
|}

====Armenian====

In [[Armenian language|Armenian]], reduplication follows the same classification as in Turkish (see below), namely emphatic reduplication, echo reduplication,<ref>Inkelas, Sharon and Downing, Laura (2015). What is Reduplication? Typology and Analysis Part 1/2: The Typology of Reduplication. Language and Linguistics Compass 9/12 (2015), p. 510</ref> and doubling. Many appear as lexical entries in Armenian lexicographical sources.
# Emphatic reduplication, one of two interpolated consonants (փ, ս), as in ''կարմիր'' (red), which becomes ''կասկարմիր'' (very red).<ref>Malxaseancʿ, Stepʿan (1944–1945), Hayerēn bacʿatrakan baṙaran [Armenian Explanatory Dictionary] (in Armenian), Volume 2, p. 396 Yerevan: State Publishing House</ref>
# Echo Reduplication, as in ''սեղան-մեղան'' (table schmable).<ref>Malxaseancʿ, Stepʿan (1944–1945), Hayerēn bacʿatrakan baṙaran [Armenian Explanatory Dictionary] (in Armenian), Volume 3, p. 198, Yerevan: State Publishing House</ref>
# Doubling, as in ''քիչ-քիչ'' (little [by] little) <ref>Malxaseancʿ, Stepʿan (1944–1945), Hayerēn bacʿatrakan baṙaran [Armenian Explanatory Dictionary] (in Armenian), Volume 4, p. 575, Yerevan: State Publishing House</ref>