Editing Pope Pius IX (section)

==Sovereignty of the Papal States==
{{Main|Papal States under Pope Pius IX}}
[[File:Pope_Pius_IX_1867_Harper's_Weekly.jpg|thumb|Pope Pius IX as depicted in ''[[Harper's Weekly]]'' in 1867]]
Pius IX was not only pope but, until 1870, also the last [[sovereignty|sovereign]] ruler of the [[Papal States]]. As a secular ruler he was occasionally referred to as "king",{{sfn|About|1859|loc=ch.&nbsp;1}} though it is unclear whether the [[Holy See]] ever accepted this title. [[Ignaz von Döllinger]], a fervent critic of Pius' infallibility dogma, considered the political regime of the pope in the Papal States "wise, well-intentioned, mild-natured, frugal and open for innovations".{{sfn|Schmidlin|1922–1939|p=45}} Yet there was controversy. In the period before the [[Revolutions of 1848|1848 revolutions]], Pius was a most ardent reformer advised by such innovative thinkers as [[Antonio Rosmini]] (1797–1855), who reconciled the new free-thinking concerning human rights with the classical [[natural law]] tradition of the church's political and economic teaching on [[social justice]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Malone |first=Richard |date=25 July 2001 |title=Historical Overview of the Rosmini Case |url=https://www.ewtn.com/library/Theology/ROSMINI.HTM |newspaper=L'Osservatore Romano |location=Baltimore, Maryland |page=9 |access-date=3 March 2018 |via=EWTN}}</ref> After the revolution, his political reforms and constitutional improvements were minimal, remaining largely within the framework of the 1850 laws mentioned above.{{sfn|Schmidlin|1922–1939|p=47}}

===Reforms in the Papal States===
{{multiple image
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|image1 = St peter square and basilica art.jpg
|caption1= [[St. Peter's Square]] and its [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica]] before Pope Pius IX added statues of Saints [[St. Peter|Peter]] and [[St. Paul|Paul]]
|image2 = Rome colosseum engraving.jpg
|caption2 = The centre of Rome showing the [[Colosseum]] and [[Roman Forum]] around 1870. Almost rural in character, it was known as the "Campo Vaccino" or "cattle field"
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Pius IX's liberal policies initially made him very popular throughout Italy. He appointed an able and enlightened minister, [[Pellegrino Rossi]], to administer the Papal States. He also showed himself hostile to [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]] influences, delighting Italian patriots, who hailed him as the coming redeemer of Italy. He once declared, "They want to make a Napoleon of me who am only a poor country parson."<ref>Schapiro, J. Salwyn, Ph.D., ''Modern and Contemporary European History (1815-1921)'' (Houghton Mifflin Company, The Riverside Press Cambridge, 1921, Revised Edition), pp. 204-205</ref>

In Pius' early years as pope, the government of the Papal States improved agricultural technology and productivity via farmer education in newly created scientific agricultural institutes. It abolished the requirements for [[Jews]] to attend Christian services and sermons and opened the papal charities to the needy amongst them. The new pope freed all political prisoners by giving amnesty to revolutionaries, which horrified the conservative monarchies in the Austrian Empire and elsewhere.{{sfn|Duffy|1997|p=222}} "He was celebrated in [[New York City]], [[London]] and [[Berlin]] as a model ruler."{{sfn|Duffy|1997|p=222}}

===Governmental structure===
In 1848, Pius IX released a new constitution titled the "[[Fundamental Statute for the Secular Government of the States of the Church]]". The governmental structure of the Papal States reflected the dual spiritual-secular character of the papacy. The secular or laypersons were strongly in the majority with 6,850 persons versus 300 members of the clergy. Nevertheless, the clergy made key decisions and every job applicant had to present a character evaluation from his parish [[priest]] to be considered.<ref name="Stehle 47">Stehle 47</ref>{{full citation needed|date=March 2018}}

===Finance===
Financial administration in the Papal States under Pius IX was increasingly put in the hands of laymen. The budget and financial administration in the Papal States had long been subject to criticism even before Pius IX. In 1850, he created a government finance body ("congregation") consisting of four laymen with finance backgrounds for the 20 provinces. After joining the [[Latin Monetary Union]] in 1866, the old [[Roman scudo]] was replaced by the new [[papal lira]].

===Commerce and trade===
Pius IX is credited with systematic efforts to improve manufacturing and trade by giving advantages and papal prizes to domestic producers of [[wool]], silk and other materials destined for export. He improved the transportation system by building roads, viaducts, bridges and [[seaport]]s. A series of new railway links connected the Papal States to northern Italy. It soon became apparent that the Northern Italians were more adept at economically exploiting the modern means of communication than the inhabitants in central and Southern Italy.{{sfn|Schmidlin|1922–1939|p=52}}

===Justice===
The justice system of the Papal States was subject to much criticism, not unlike the justice systems in the rest of Italy. Legal books were scarce, standards inconsistent, and judges were often accused of favoritism. In the Papal States and throughout Italy, organized criminal gangs threatened commerce and travelers, engaging in robbery and murder at will.{{sfn|Schmidlin|1922–1939|p=49}}

===Military===
[[File:Pius ix soldiers.jpg|thumb|Papal soldiers around 1860]]

The Papal army in 1859 had 15,000 soldiers.{{sfn|Schmidlin|1922–1939|p=50}} A separate military body, the elite [[Swiss Guard]], served as the Pope's personal bodyguard.

===Universities===
The two papal universities in [[Sapienza University of Rome|Rome]] and [[University of Bologna|Bologna]] suffered much from revolutionary activities in 1848 but their standards in the areas of science, mathematics, philosophy and theology were considered adequate.{{sfn|Schmidlin|1922–1939|p=53}} Pius recognized that much had to be done and instituted a reform commission in 1851. During his tenure, Catholics and [[Protestants]] collaborated to found a school in Rome to study international law and train international mediators committed to conflict resolution.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gagliarducci |first=Andrea |date=7 September 2013 |title=Pope Francis Carries Forward Papal Commitment to Peace |url=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/27999/pope-francis-carries-forward-papal-commitment-to-peace |publisher=Catholic News Agency |access-date=3 March 2018}}</ref> There was one newspaper, ''[[Giornale di Roma]]'', and one periodical, ''[[La Civiltà Cattolica]]'', run by [[Jesuits]].{{sfn|Schmidlin|1922–1939|p=53}}

===Arts===
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|image1 = Pius ix with jesus and angels.jpg
|caption1 =A hagiographic presentation of Pius IX
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|caption2 = Illustration of the [[Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran]] 
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Like most of his predecessors, Pius IX was a patron of the arts. He supported architecture, painting, sculpture, music, [[goldsmith]]s, [[coppersmith]]s, and more, and handed out numerous rewards to artists.{{sfn|Schmidlin|1922–1939|p=55}} Much of his efforts went to renovate and improve churches in Rome and the Papal States.{{sfn|Capitelli|2011|pp=17–147}} He ordered the strengthening of the [[Colosseum]], which was feared to be on the verge of collapse.{{sfn|Schmidlin|1922–1939|p=61}} Huge sums were spent in the excavation of the Christian [[Catacombs of Rome]], for which Pius created a new archaeological commission in 1853.

===Jews===
{{Main|Pope Pius IX and Judaism}}
The Papal States were a [[theocracy]] in which the Catholic Church and its members had far more rights than other religions. Pius IX's religious policies became increasingly reactionary over time. At the beginning of his pontificate, together with other liberal measures, Pius opened up the [[Roman Ghetto|Jewish ghetto in Rome]], freeing Jews to reside elsewhere. In 1850, after French troops defeated the revolutionary [[Roman Republic (1849)|Roman Republic]] and returned him from exile, the Pope reversed the Republic's religious freedom laws and issued a series of anti-liberal measures, including re-instituting the Jewish ghetto.{{sfn|Pougeois|1877c|p=258}}

In a highly publicized [[Mortara case|case]] from 1858, the police of the Papal States seized a 6-year-old Jewish boy, [[Edgardo Mortara]], from his parents. A Christian servant girl unrelated to the family claimed she had informally [[baptism|baptized]] him during an illness six years prior, fearing he would die. This had made the child legally a Christian convert, and Papal law forbade Christians from being raised by Jews, even their own parents. The incident provoked widespread outrage amongst liberals, both Catholic and non-Catholic, and contributed to the growing anti-papal sentiment in Europe. The boy was raised in the [[papal household]], and was eventually ordained a priest at age 21.{{sfn|Kertzer|1998}}