Editing Pope Adrian IV (section)

==Normans, Greeks and Apulians==
[[File:12th-century Italy.png|thumb|upright|Map of 12th-century Italy, illustrating the respective boundaries between the Papal States and Patrimony and those claimed by King William and Emperor Frederick|alt=map of 12th-century Italy]]
Probably as a result, he responded positively to overtures from the [[Byzantine Emperor]] [[Manuel I Komnenos|Manuel I]], and also the native barons of Southern Italy, who saw in Adrian's support a chance for them to overthrow William, whom Adrian had recently [[excommunicated]]{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} for invading the Papal patrimony.{{sfn|Barber|1992|p=101}} The rebellion had started off promisingly, with rebel victories at [[Bari]], [[Trani, Apulia|Trani]] and [[Andria]].{{sfn|Norwich|1970|p=175}} They had already found themselves a powerful ally in Manuel, the Byzantine Emperor, and welcomed anyone—including Adrian—who was hostile to William.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=642}} Their leader, Count Robert of Loritello, had been charged with treason by William but had managed to escape north. William was temporarily struck down with an unknown illness, as the scholar Joshua C. Birk explains, "this brought the enemies of the kingdom of Sicily out of the woodwork"; among them, Adrian excommunicated William.{{sfn|Birk|2016|p=211}} By 1154, William had captured important towns in the Patrimony.{{sfn|Eden|2006|p=293}} In summer 1155 rebellion broke out in southern Italy by the native nobility against their lord, the King of Sicily. One group of rebels, having gained the support of Emperor Manuel, overran [[Ancona]].{{sfn|Robinson|1996|p=464}} By winter 1155, suggests Norwich, few contemporaries "would have held out much hope for the future of the Sicilian monarchy".{{sfn|Norwich|1970|p=175}} According to Boso, the rebels asked Adrian to come to them as their feudal lord, to act as their spiritual advisor and bless them in their endeavours.{{sfn|Matthew|1992|p=62}} Adrian, believing that William's kingdom would collapse imminently,{{sfn|Matthew|1992|p=65}} tried to exploit William's weakness and allied with the rebels in September. As it turned out, this was a miscalculation.{{sfn|Robinson|1996|p=464}} William had already asked Adrian for a peace conference, which the Pope had ("scornfully") rejected.{{sfn|Matthew|1992|p=62}}{{refn|Adrian was deliberately rude to William, suggests the scholar Donald Matthew, for example referring to him as ''dominus'' (lord) of Sicily rather than as King. Boso later tried to conceal Adrian's role errors, claiming that it had been the fault of his cardinals.{{sfn|Matthew|1992|pp=63, 65}}{{sfn|Loud|2012|p=38}}|group=note}}

===Alliance with Manuel I, 1156===
Emperor Manuel I had launched his own military operation against William in southern Italy in 1154.{{sfn|Ullmann|1955|p=235}}{{refn|The south of Italy, particularly Apulia, had a large Greek population, with [[Greek Orthodox church]]es, who "played important roles in the administration of the Norman kingdom", notes Duggan, "and Byzantine emperors had not yet abandoned hopes of re-establishing some control over the south".{{sfn|Duggan|2003a|p=120}}|group=note}} He found Adrian a willing ally. The Russian historian [[Alexander Vasiliev (historian)|Alexander Vasiliev]] notes that Adrian "expressed his desire 'to help in bringing all the brethren into one church' and compared the eastern church with lost ''drachma'', wandering sheep, and the dead [[Lazarus of Bethany|Lazarus]]".{{sfn|Vasiliev|1973|p=476}} Adrian's isolation led directly to his concordat with the Eastern Empire in 1156,{{sfn|Barber|1992|p=101}} although Duggan emphasises that he was reacting to external political pressures rather than deliberately initiating a new policy.{{sfn|Duggan|2003a|p=120}} As a result, says Barber, he "became involved in a fruitless Byzantine plan to overcome the Normans which ended, as so often before when the popes had ventured south in arms, in Norman victory".{{sfn|Barber|1992|p=101}} Adrian—as if, says Partner, "the unhappy experiences of at least three popes has taught the papacy nothing"{{sfn|Partner|1972|p=190}}—organised a papal army comprising Roman and Campagnan nobility and crossed the border into Apulia in September 1155.{{sfn|Partner|1972|p=190}}

Although it has been suggested that Manuel offered to pay Adrian a large sum of money in return for ceding him certain Apulian cities, it seems unlikely that this was ever actioned; certainly, notes Duggan, Adrian was wholly against the creation of a Byzantine kingdom on his own doorstep.{{sfn|Duggan|2003a|p=122}} This was in spite of Manuel deliberately not pressing his Empire's historical claim on South Italy as a whole,{{sfn|Magdalino|2008|p=638}} and was interested primarily in the coastal areas.{{sfn|Magdalino|1993|p=57}}{{refn|The coastal towns of Apulia had large Greek populations.{{sfn|Magdalino|2008|p=639}}|group=note}} Initially, his campaign succeeded, and by 1155 he had annexed [[Republic of Ancona|Ancona]], and had occupied [[Salento]], namely the area from [[Brindisi]] to [[Taranto]].{{sfn|Ullmann|1955|p=235}} Byzantine funding enabled Adrian to temporarily restore his vassal [[Robert III of Loritello|Robert, Count of Loritello]],{{sfn|Barber|1992|p=236}}{{sfn|Norwich|1970|p=175}} although on one occasion William was able to capture {{convert|5000|lb|kg|abbr=off}} of gold from Manuel that had been destined for the Pope's war chest.{{sfn|Eden|2006|p=293}} There was some discussion of an alliance between Roman pope and Eastern emperor, and Adrian despatched [[Anselm of Havelberg]] east to arrange it, although in the event negotiations came to nothing.{{sfn|Cameron|2016|p=83}} Magdalino argues that Adrian would not have been interested in an alliance "without the lure of Byzantine gold".{{sfn|Magdalino|1993|p=105}} Although the Byzantine Emperor had sent his army to support the Pope in Italy—and indeed, had subdued the troublesome region of the [[Balkans]]—Adrian, argues Sayers, "could not accept any power for the emperor that was not dependent on the pope".{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} Ullmann argues that although Adrian was receptive to Manuel's ambition of uniting the Eastern and Western Roman Empires, he did not appreciate the manner in which the offer was made.{{sfn|Ullmann|1955|p=248}} He was particularly averse to Manuel's suggestion that the pope's sword was merely a spiritual force,{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} and, suggests Ullmann, "received Manuel's overtures with that scepticism which they deserved".{{sfn|Ullmann|1955|p=248}} Adrian, though, while agreeing on the basic tenet of a single emperor and a single church, believed that it was not a case of the Western church joining that of the East, but the latter returning to the former with the "obedience due to a mother", as he put it in a letter to Manuel. In other words, all Christians, East or West, should be subjugated to the church of St Peter.{{sfn|Ullmann|1955|p=249}}

===Norman victory===
Strategically, King William's position was not looking good, and he offered Adrian large sums in financial compensation for the Pope to withdraw his forces. However, the majority of Adrian's curia were averse to holding negotiations with the Sicilians, and the King's offer was rejected somewhat haughtily. This turned out to be a bad mistake.{{sfn|Partner|1972|pp=190–191}} William soon won decisive victories over both Greek and Apulian armies in mid-1156,{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} culminating in the final defeat of the Eastern Empire at the [[Battle of Brindisi (1156)|Battle of Brindisi]].{{sfn|Chrysostomides|2009|p=18}} When William soundly defeated the rebels,{{sfn|Robinson|1996|p=464}} Adrian—who was by now, even more, bogged down in the problem of Rome{{sfn|Matthew|1992|p=63}} and without allies{{sfn|Norwich|1970|p=176}}—had to sue for peace on the King's terms.{{sfn|Robinson|1996|p=464}} This was yet another external event—indeed, probably the single most important event of the pontificate she argues—that Adrian had had no way of influencing but had to deal with its consequences, notes Duggan.{{sfn|Duggan|2003a|p=153}} He was effectively captured and forced to come to terms at [[Benevento]]{{sfn|Abulafia|1988|p=56}}{{refn|Benevento was a Papal enclave inside Sicilian southern Italy, so Adrian was unable to escape easily.{{sfn|Abulafia|1988|p=56}}|group=note}} three weeks later.{{sfn|Loud|2004|p=456}} This one event, says Duggan, changed Adrian's policy for good, whether or not he liked it.{{sfn|Duggan|2003a|p=110}} As a result, at the [[Treaty of Benevento|Concordat of Benevento]], Adrian had to invest William with the lands he claimed in southern Italy, symbolised by the presentation of the Pope's own [[pennon]]ed lances and the kiss of peace.{{sfn|Norwich|1970|p=176}} The Pope was accepted as William's feudal overlord, while being forbidden from entering Sicily without an invitation from the King,{{sfn|Barber|1992|p=236}}{{refn|This did not apply to the mainland of Southern Italy, but, Barber points out, this was effectively the ''status quo'' in any case: Popes only entered the region four times between 1154 and 1189.{{sfn|Barber|1992|p=236}}|group=note}} thereby granting William effectively Legatine authority over the church in his own land.{{sfn|Loud|2004|p=456}} For his part, William gave the Pope his [[Homage (feudal)|homage]] and contracted to pay an annual tribute{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} and provide military support on request.{{sfn|Whalen|2014|p=126}} The treaty conferred extended powers on the Kings of Sicily that they would enjoy for at least the next 40 years, and included powers over ecclesiastical appointments traditionally held by the Popes as the region's feudal lord.{{sfn|Matthew|1992|p=193}}{{refn|These were greater powers than the Emperor enjoyed in his realm, and thus embittered relations between him and the Pope further.{{sfn|Matthew|1992|p=193}}|group=note}} Adrian's treaty with William angered the Emperor, who took it as a personal slight that Adrian had treated with the two Imperial rivals to Italy and confirmed his view of Adrian's Papal arrogance.{{sfn|Norwich|1970|p=180}} This, suggests Robinson, sowed the seeds of the disputed election following Adrian's death.{{sfn|Robinson|1996|p=79}}{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=378}}

The defeat of Manuel's army left the Pope vulnerable, and in June 1156 Adrian was forced to come to terms with the Sicilian King.{{sfn|Barber|1992|p=101}} This was, however, suggests Robinson, on generous terms, including "homage and fealty, reparation for the recent encroachments on the papal patrimony, help against the Romans, freedom from royal control for the Sicilian church".{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=378}} Adrian's new alliance with William exacerbated relations with Barbarossa,{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} who believed that Adrian had broken the Treaty of Constance twice over, by allying with both King William and the Byzantine Emperor.{{sfn|Robinson|1996|p=464}} Relations between Pope and Emperor were, argues Latowsky, "irreparably damaged.{{sfn|Latowsky|2013|p=168}} Adrian probably acted as mediator the following year in concluding a peace treaty between William and Manuel.{{sfn|Robinson|1996|p=464}} The Emperor attempted to prevent the treaty by sending his most experienced diplomat, Abbot [[Wibald]] to intervene, as he probably saw a Sicilian–Byzantine alliance as being directed against him.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=195}}

The alliance with William had probably been strengthened by the Pope's belief that Barbarossa had already broken the Treaty of Constance.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=152}} At the Treaty of Benevento, Adrian was represented by the Cardinals Ubald, Julius and Roland;{{sfn|Matthew|1992|p=65}} the Papacy was forced to cede much valuable land, rights and income to William.{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=367}} The Emperor felt personally betrayed: according to the contemporary chronicler [[Geoffrey of Viterbo]], the Pope, "wish[ed] to be an enemy of Caesar".{{sfn|Duggan|2003a|p=107}} Duggan, however, suggests that the Imperial alliance with the papacy had only ever been a [[flag of convenience]], "ready to be discarded when it had served its purpose".{{sfn|Duggan|2003a|p=154}}{{refn|Duggan suggests that once he had been elected as emperor, all he needed was a puppet pope, and that Adrian's policy of keeping the papacy on an independent course, was an "intolerable provocation".{{sfn|Duggan|2003a|p=154}}|group=note}} Bolton, meanwhile, suggests that, as Benevento was an Imperial town, the fact that following the treaty he stayed there for eight more months indicates that Adrian was asserting his power.{{sfn|Bolton|2003b|p=165}}