Editing Politics of the Philippines (section)

== History ==
{{Main|Political history of the Philippines}}

===Pre-independence===
[[File:Walled City of Manila, detail from Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas (1734).jpg|thumb|The Spanish established [[Manila]] as the capital of the [[Captaincy General of the Philippines]].]]

Before the onset of Spanish rule in the 16th century, the Philippines was split into numerous [[Barangay state|barangays]], which were small entities while being part of region-wide trade networks.<ref name="Abinales2005">{{cite book |last1=Abinales |first1=P. N. |last2=Amoroso |first2=Donna J. |title=State and Society in the Philippines |year=2005 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-1024-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC |language=en}}</ref>{{rp|26–27}} The arrival of Hindu influence increased the power of Indianized [[datu]]s.<ref name="Abinales2005"/>{{rp|24–25}} The first large state was [[Sultanate of Sulu|Sulu]], which adopted Islam in the 15th century.<ref name="Abinales2005"/>{{rp|43–44}} Spanish Captain-General [[Miguel López de Legazpi]] established a settlement in Cebu in 1565. Maynila was conquered in 1571, and Manila subsequently became the center of Spanish administration.<ref name="Ooi"/>{{rp|1076}}

Spain gradually conquered the majority of the modern Philippines, although full control was never established over some Muslims areas in the south and in the [[Cordillera Central (Luzon)|Cordillera highlands]].<ref name="Ooi"/>{{rp|1076}} In the 19th century Spain eventually gained control over the seas and coasts.<ref name="Abinales2017"/>{{rp|95–96}} Inward migration in the Cordilleras to escape Spanish control and an increase in trade saw settlements in interior areas increase in population and political complexity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Acabado |first1=Stephen |title=The Archaeology of Pericolonialism: Responses of the "Unconquered" to Spanish Conquest and Colonialism in Ifugao, Philippines |journal=International Journal of Historical Archaeology |date=8 April 2016 |volume=21 |pages=10, 22 |doi=10.1007/s10761-016-0342-9 |s2cid=147472482 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/300085455}}</ref> Throughout Spanish rule, the archipelago remained divided by regional identity and language.<ref name="Abinales2005"/>{{rp|83–84}}

Rule during the Spanish era was dominated by the church, especially friars.<ref name="Abinales2005"/>{{rp|53}} Ultimate power was held by the King and the [[Council of the Indies]], with the Philippines being part of [[New Spain]],<ref name="Ooi"/>{{rp|1077}} although the islands functioned practically autonomously.<ref name="Newsom">{{cite book |last1=Newson |first1=Linda A. |title=Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines |date=April 16, 2009 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-6197-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3}}</ref>{{rp|25}} The Philippines had their own [[Governor-General of the Philippines|Governor]]<ref name="Ooi"/>{{rp|1077}} and a [[Real Audiencia of Manila|judicial body]] was established in 1583.<ref name="Newsom"/>{{rp|25}} Direct Spanish rule did not extend far from Manila,<ref name="Yeo">{{cite book |last1=Yeo |first1=Andrew |editor1-last=Haggard |editor1-first=Stephan |editor2-last=Kang |editor2-first=David C. |title=East Asia in the World: Twelve Events That Shaped the Modern International Order |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-47987-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gdj8DwAAQBAJ |chapter=Philippine National Independence, 1898⁠—1904}}</ref>{{rp|208}} and locals were relied upon for administration.<ref name="Newsom"/>{{rp|24–26}} Traditional native elites, along with some native officeholders and high-value tax payers, became part of a group known as the ''principalia''.<ref name="Anastacio">{{cite book |last1=Anastacio |first1=Leia Castañeda |title=The Foundations of the Modern Philippine State: Imperial Rule and the American Constitutional Tradition in the Philippine Islands, 1898–1935 |date=22 August 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-02467-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sVfWDAAAQBAJ |page=51}}</ref><ref name="Cullinane">{{cite book |last1=Cullinane |first1=Michael |title=Ilustrado Politics: Filipino Elite Responses to American Rule, 1898-1908 |date=2003 |publisher=Ateneo University Press |isbn=978-971-550-439-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sjMa5dt7gTQC}}</ref>{{rp|16–17}} Over time, this elite class became more culturally distinct, gaining an education unavailable to most and intermarrying with Spanish officials and Chinese merchants.<ref name="Simbulan">{{cite book |last1=Simbulan |first1=Dante C. |title=The Modern Principalia: The Historical Evolution of the Philippine Ruling Oligarchy |date=2005 |publisher=University of the Philippines Press |isbn=978-971-542-496-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=55ZQdJG1G6IC}}</ref>{{rp|20–21}}

In the 19th century, Philippine ports opened to world trade and shifts started occurring within Filipino society.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Daniel George Edward |title=History of South East Asia |date=1981 |publisher=Macmillan International Higher Education |isbn=978-1-349-16521-6 |page=757 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XD9dDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA757 |access-date=July 30, 2020 |language=en }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bacareza |first1=Hermógenes E. |title=The German Connection: A Modern History |date=2003 |publisher=Hermogenes E. Bacareza |page=10 |isbn=978-971-93095-4-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RsBxAAAAMAAJ&q=philippines+ports+world+trade+19th+century |access-date=July 30, 2020 |language=en}}</ref> An expanding civil service and a changing economy saw more complex social structures emerge with new upper and middle classes.<ref name="Cullinane"/>{{rp|12–14}} The [[Spanish American wars of independence|Latin American wars of independence]] and renewed immigration led to shifts in social identity, with the term ''Filipino'' shifting from referring to [[Peninsulares|Spaniards born in the Iberian Peninsula]] and [[Criollo people|in the Philippines]] to a term encompassing all people in the archipelago. This identity shift was driven by wealthy [[mestizos|families of mixed ancestry]], for which it developed into a national identity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hedman |first1=Eva-Lotta |last2=Sidel |first2=John |title=Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century: Colonial Legacies, Post-Colonial Trajectories |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-75421-2 |page=71 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X_lDpY3vj60C&pg=PA71 |access-date=July 30, 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | quote=The cultural identity of the mestizos was challenged as they became increasingly aware that they were true members of neither the indio nor the Chinese community. Increasingly powerful but adrift, they linked with the Spanish mestizos, who were also being challenged because after the Latin American revolutions broke the Spanish Empire, many of the settlers from the New World, Caucasian Creoles born in Mexico or Peru, became suspect in the eyes of the Iberian Spanish. The Spanish Empire had lost its universality. |chapter=Chapter – 3 A SINGULAR AND A PLURAL FOLK |last=Steinberg |first=David Joel |title=THE PHILIPPINES A Singular and a Plural Place |publisher=Routledge |date=2018 |pages=47 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6NFMDwAAQBAJ |doi=10.4324/9780429494383 |isbn=978-0-8133-3755-5}}</ref> A class of educated individuals became known as the [[Ilustrados]]. This group gained prominence in Philippine administration, and became increasingly involved in politics.<ref name="Cullinane"/>{{rp|26–34}}

[[File:Ilustrados 1890.jpg|thumb|The [[Ilustrado]]s in Madrid, {{Circa|1890}}]]

In the 1880s, some prominent Ilustrados launched the [[Propaganda Movement]].<ref name="Cullinane"/>{{rp|35–36}} For the most part this was a campaign for secular self-government as a full part of Spain,<ref name="Abinales2005"/>{{rp|105–107}} but as proposed liberal reforms were rejected, some saw the movement as the beginning of a [[National revival|national awakening]].<ref name="Cullinane"/>{{rp|36}} In 1892 the [[Katipunan]] split from the movement, led by members of Manila's urban middle class.<ref name="Cullinane"/>{{rp|39}} The Katipunan advocated complete Philippine independence, and began the [[Philippine Revolution]] in 1896.<ref name="Halili">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&pg=PA119 |title=Philippine History |last=Halili |first=Maria Christine N. |publisher=Rex Bookstore |year=2004 |isbn=978-971-23-3934-9 |pages=137, 145}}</ref> The Spanish–American war reached the Philippines on May 1 with the [[Battle of Manila Bay]]. The Katipunan under [[Emilio Aguinaldo]] [[Philippine Declaration of Independence|proclaimed the independence]] of the Philippines on June 12, 1898.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Malolos Congress |date=1999 |publisher=The National Historical Institute |isbn=978-971-538-122-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/TheMalolosCongress/ |pages=13–15}}</ref> Aguinaldo proclaimed a [[Revolutionary Government of the Philippines|revolutionary government]], and convened a congress that approved the [[Malolos Constitution]], inaugurating the [[First Philippine Republic]].<ref name="Aguiling-Pangalangan"/>{{rp|123}}

Spain [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|ceded the Philippines]] to the United States in 1898.<ref>{{cite book |title=America's War for Humanity Related in Story and Picture: Embracing a Complete History of Cuba's Struggle for Liberty, and the Glorious Heroism of America's Soldiers and Sailors |year=1898 |publisher=N.D. Thompson Publishing Company |pages=593–595 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hq8TAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593 |access-date=16 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref> The [[Philippine–American War]] erupted in February 1899 in a [[Battle of Manila (1899)|skirmish in Manila]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The American Contribution to Philippine Education: 1898-1998|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nyycAAAAMAAJ|year=1998|publisher=United States Information Service}}</ref> Aguinaldo was captured on April 1, 1901.<ref name="Ooi"/>{{rp|1076}} The Americans gave Filipinos limited self-government at the local level by 1901.<ref name="Teehankee2002"/>{{rp|150–151}} The hierarchical social structure that existed under Spanish rule was co-opted by the United States, with democracy introduced in a manner which did not threaten the power of the existing elites.<ref name="Manacsa"/>{{rp|752}} Local elites were entrenched into the national system.<ref name="Teehankee2002"/>{{rp|151}}

The [[1907 Philippine Assembly elections|first election]] of the [[Philippine Assembly]] in 1907 was won by the independence-supporting Nacionalista Party, led by [[Sergio Osmeña]].<ref name="Teehankee2002"/>{{rp|151–152}} The Nacionalista party would [[Dominant-party system|maintain electoral dominance]] until independence.<ref name="Simbulan"/>{{rp|42}} In some rural areas opposition to American rule persisted among the poorer population,<ref name="Abinales2017"/>{{rp|128–130}} and the development of [[class consciousness]]-based political organization led to [[Sakdalista|peasant revolts]] in the 1930s.<ref name="RoutledgeKimura"/>{{rp|21–22}} American forces extended their control over the entirety of the islands,<ref name="Duka">{{cite book |last1=Duka |first1=Cecilio D. |title=Struggle for Freedom |date=2008 |publisher=Rex Bookstore, Inc. |isbn=978-971-23-5045-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC&pg=PA200 |pages=200–202}}</ref> [[Kiram-Bates Treaty|securing the Sultanate of Sulu]]<ref name=Bates>{{cite web|url=http://www.philippineupdate.com/Bates.htm |title=The Bates Treaty|first=Madge|last=Kho|publisher=PhilippineUpdate.com|access-date=December 2, 2007}}</ref> and establishing control over interior mountainous areas.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/42633435|title=The Igorot as Other: Four Discourses from the Colonial Period|author=Aguilar-Cariño, Ma. Luisa|year=1994|journal=Philippine Studies|volume=42|issue=2|pages=194–209|jstor=42633435|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The Philippine government pursued a policy of gradually strengthening government in Mindanao, supported by immigration from Christian areas.<ref name="Fry">{{cite journal |last1=Fry |first1=Howard T. |title=The Bacon Bill of 1926: New Light on an Exercise in Divide-and-Rule |journal=Philippine Studies |date=1978 |volume=26 |issue=3 |url=http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/viewFile/1655/4612}}</ref>{{rp|269–270}} Despite this, the traditional political structures of Sultanates and Datus continued as a parallel political structure.<ref name="Milligan">{{cite book |last1=Milligan |first1=Jeffrey Ayala |title=Islamic Identity, Postcoloniality, and Educational Policy: Schooling and Ethno-Religious Conflict in the Southern Philippines |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-981-15-1228-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_yLTDwAAQBAJ}}</ref>{{rp|93}}

The 1916 [[Jones Law (Philippines)|Jones Law]] envisioned eventual Philippine independence.<ref name="Ybiernas">{{cite journal |last1=Ybiernas |first1=Vicente Angel |title=Contested National Development: Executive-Legislative Relations in American Colonial Philippines and the Cabinet Crisis of 1923 |journal=Asian Studies |date=2015 |volume=51 |issue=2 |page=103 |url=https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-51-2-2015/ASJ%2051-2%202015.pdf |access-date=3 December 2020}}</ref> The Nacionalista-dominated legislature grew more powerful, seizing state bodies and using nationalism to weaken American oversight.<ref name="Abinales2005"/>{{rp|139}}<ref name="Fry"/>{{rp|271}}<ref name="Ooi">{{cite book |last1=Ooi |first1=Keat Gin |title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor |date=2004 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-770-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1117}}</ref>{{rp|1117}}<ref name="Abinales2005"/>{{rp|141–142}} The establishment of the senate led to the Nacionalistas forming opposing camps loyal to Osmeña (the Unipersonalistas) and Senate President [[Manuel L. Quezon]] (the Colectavistas).<ref name="Simbulan"/>{{rp|44}} The 1934 [[Tydings–McDuffie Act]] paved the way for the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines]] and mandated U.S. recognition of independence of the Philippine Islands after a ten-year transition period.<ref name=TMact>{{USStatute|73|127|48|456|1934|03|24}}</ref><ref name="Ooi"/>{{rp|1117}}

[[File:Signing the Constitution of the Philippine Commonwealth, 23 March 1935.jpg|thumb|United States President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] signs the 1935 Constitution of the Philippines in the presence of then Philippine Senate President [[Manuel L. Quezon]].]]

Quezon and Osmeña were elected as president and vice president, respectively, in [[1935 Philippine presidential election|1935]].<ref name="Chamberlain">{{cite book |last1=Chamberlain |first1=Sharon W. |title=A Reckoning: Philippine Trials of Japanese War Criminals |date=5 March 2019 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |isbn=978-0-299-31860-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JByIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11}}</ref>{{rp|12}} In 1937 the voting franchise was [[1937 Philippine women's suffrage plebiscite|expanded to include literate women]].<ref name="Abinales2005"/>{{rp|147}} A national curriculum similarly sought to impose a single vision of a Filipino identity across the diverse ethnolinguistic groups of the islands,<ref name="Milligan"/>{{rp|110}} and [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] was established as [[Filipino language|a national language]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Thompson |first1=Roger M. |title=Filipino English and Taglish: Language Switching from Multiple Perspectives |date=1 January 2003 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-4891-6 |pages=28–29 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W1h9oF9rj-MC&pg=PA28}}</ref> Treatment of the Commonwealth by the United States was inconsistent: sometimes it was treated as a separate country, sometimes as under US jurisdiction.<ref name="Bühler">{{cite book |last1=Bühler |first1=Konrad G. |title=State Succession and Membership in International Organizations: Legal Theories Versus Political Pragmatism |date=February 8, 2001 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=978-90-411-1553-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C&pg=PA37}}</ref>{{rp|37–40}} The presidential system of the Commonwealth government was based on that of the United States.<ref name="Teehankee2002"/>{{rp|154}} However, while dividing power between three branches similarly to the constitution of the United States, the 1935 constitution gave the Philippine president significantly more power both politically and economically than that accorded to the president of the United States.<ref name="Hedman-Sidel2000">{{cite book |last1=Hedman |first1=Eva-Lotta E. |last2=Sidel |first2=John Thayer |title=Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century: Colonial Legacies, Post-colonial Trajectories |date=2000 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-14791-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3CFvxgEccfkC}}</ref>{{rp|16}}

The [[Battle of the Philippines (1941–42)|Japanese invasion of 1941]] at the onset of [[World War II]] forced the Commonwealth government to go into [[Government in exile of the Commonwealth of the Philippines|exile]],<ref name="Ooi"/>{{rp|1118}} and subjected the country to a puppet government.<ref>Alphonso J. Aluit, ''By Sword and Fire: The Destruction of Manila in World War II, 3 February-3 March 1945'', Bookmark Inc., 1994</ref> The [[KALIBAPI]] became the sole legal political party, and [[Jose P. Laurel]] was declared president of an independent [[Second Philippine Republic]].<ref name="Chamberlain"/>{{rp|14–15}}<ref name="Rottman">{{cite book |last1=Rottman |first1=Gordon L. |title=World War II Pacific Island Guide: A Geo-military Study |date=2002 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-31395-0 |pages=288 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC&pg=PA288}}</ref><ref name="Bankoff"/> In rural areas, a sudden vacuum of elite power led to the formation of new local governments by the remaining populace, beginning the [[Hukbalahap Rebellion]].<ref name="Franco">{{cite book |last1=Franco |first1=Jennifer C. |editor1-last=Alagappa |editor1-first=Muthiah |title=Civil Society and Political Change in Asia: Expanding and Contracting Democratic Space |date=2004 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-5097-4 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fqNsVB0hJRYC&pg=PA97 |chapter=The Philippines: Fractious Civil Society and Competing Visions of Democracy}}</ref>{{rp|105}} The [[Philippines campaign (1944–45)|Americans reconquered the Philippines in 1944]], and Osmeña, who had succeeded Quezon upon the latter's death, restored the Commonwealth government.<ref name="Chamberlain"/>{{rp|15}}

The Nacionalistas were divided following the war, with a leadership struggle leading to [[Manuel Roxas]] setting up what would later be the [[Liberal Party (Philippines)|Liberal Party]].<ref name="Teehankee2017"/> Roxas defeated Osmeña in the [[1946 Philippine presidential election|1946 presidential election]], and became the last president of the Commonwealth.<ref name="Hernandez">{{cite book |last1=Hernandez |first1=Jose Rhommel B. |editor1-last=Lee Lai To |editor2-last=Zarina Othman |title=Regional Community Building in East Asia: Countries in Focus |date=2016 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-26556-6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WCwlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 |chapter=The Philippines: Everything in place}}</ref>{{rp|145}} A left-wing political movement that spawned from the Hukbalahap fight against the Japanese was suppressed by the former elite with American support, leading to the continuation of the rebellion against the new government.<ref name="Franco"/>{{rp|105}} The Americans [[Treaty of Manila (1946)|granted independence]] on July 4, 1946, and Roxas became the first president of the new [[Republic of the Philippines]].<ref name="Hernandez"/>{{rp|145}}

===Independence===
[[File:Manuelroxasinaguration.jpg|thumb|President [[Manuel Roxas]]' inauguration as the first president of an independent Philippines]]

The impact of the war led to a weaker civil service and a reduction in the dominance of Manila, with provincial politicians gaining political power and in some cases ''de facto'' autonomy. Many leveraged their provincial power to engage in national politics.<ref name="McCoy"/>{{rp|19–20}} Universal suffrage saw an expansion of voter participation, although power remained concentrated in the hands of a small elite.<ref name="Hedman-Sidel2000"/>{{rp|14–15}} A diversifying post-war economy largely brought an end to the land-based [[cacique democracy]] patronage system. Political offices became lucrative by themselves, and patronage became more reliant on access to government funds.<ref name="Raquiza">{{cite book |last1=Raquiza |first1=Antoinette R. |title=State Structure, Policy Formation, and Economic Development in Southeast Asia: The Political Economy of Thailand and the Philippines |date=17 June 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-50502-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g5bkhjFAzyMC}}</ref>{{rp|69}} These changes did not shift the overall shape of Filipino politics, which remained a [[two-party system]] dominated by a narrow elite.<ref name="Hedman-Sidel2000"/>{{rp|15}} There was little policy difference between the parties.<ref name="Hedman2005">{{cite book |last1=Hedman |first1=Eva-Lotta |title=In the Name of Civil Society: From Free Election Movements to People Power in the Philippines |date=November 30, 2005 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-2921-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CIYn9_ZMMesC}}</ref>{{rp|17}}

Roxas suffered a fatal [[heart attack]] in 1948, allowing Vice President [[Elpidio Quirino]] to rule the country for the next six years.<ref name="Chamberlain"/>{{rp|16}} Quirino sought to significantly expand executive power.<ref name="Hedman-Sidel2000"/>{{rp|18}} Quirino's Liberal government was widely seen as corrupt and was easily beaten by his former Defense secretary [[Ramon Magsaysay]] in [[1953 Philippine presidential election|1953]]. Magsaysay, who oversaw the surrender of the long-running [[Hukbalahap Rebellion]], was massively popular.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Roger J. |last2=Cochran |first2=James A. |journal=Air University Review |title=Counterinsurgency in Perspective |date=1963 |volume=14 |page=71 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aTk7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA71 |publisher=United States Department of the Air Force |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Greenberg |first1=Lawrence M. |title=The Hukbalahap Insurrection: A Case Study of a Successful Anti-insurgency Operation in the Philippines, 1946-1955 |date=1987 |publisher=Analysis Branch, U.S. Army Center of Military History |pages=64, 133 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NFJyAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA133 |access-date=16 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Magsaysay implemented a plan to settle surrendered Hukbalahap rebels in Mindanao,<ref name="Milligan"/>{{rp|111}} cementing a demographic shift in Mindanao from a Muslim to a Christian majority.<ref name="Gross">{{cite book |last1=Gross |first1=Max L. |title=A Muslim Archipelago: Islam and Politics in Southeast Asia |date=2007 |publisher=United States Department of Defense |isbn=978-1-932946-19-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aJHaAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA170 |chapter=Islam in the Philippines}}</ref>{{rp|177, 180}}

Before the [[1957 Philippine presidential election|1957 election]], Magsaysay was killed in a [[1957 Cebu Douglas C-47 crash|plane crash]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Magsaysay, Philippine President, Dies in Crash of Private Plane; Israel Blames U.N. for Gaza Crisis |url=https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1957/3/18/magsaysay-philippine-president-dies-in-crash/ |access-date=16 April 2021 |work=The Harvard Crimson |agency=Associated Press |date=18 March 1957 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422045709/http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1957/3/18/magsaysay-philippine-president-dies-in-crash/ |archive-date=22 April 2018}}</ref> His vice president, [[Carlos P. Garcia]], succeeded him and won the election.<ref>{{cite book |title=Republic of the Philippines: Background |date=1961 |publisher=Office of Armed Forces Information & Education |page=7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q-962VHQhQgC&pg=PA7 |access-date=12 May 2021 |language=en}}</ref> He continued Magsaysay's "Filipino First" policy<ref name="White">{{cite book |last1=White III |first1=Lynn T. |title=Philippine Politics: Possibilities and Problems in a Localist Democracy |date=December 17, 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-57422-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4mvfBQAAQBAJ}}</ref>{{rp|69}} and implemented an [[austerity]] program.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Antonio |first1=Eleanor D. |last2=Dallo |first2=Evangeline M. |last3=Imperial |first3=Consuelo M. |last4=Samson |first4=Maria Carmelita B. |last5=Soriano |first5=Celia D. |title=Kayamanan I: Kasaysayan ng Pilipinas |date=2005 |publisher=Rex Book Store |isbn=978-971-23-4040-6 |page=297 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g48ITuwh8uQC&pg=PA297 |language=fil}}</ref> Garcia was defeated by his vice president, [[Diosdado Macapagal]] of the Liberal Party, [[1961 Philippine presidential election|in 1961]]. Macapagal initiated a return to a system of free enterprise, and sought land reform and electrification.<ref name="Ooi"/>{{rp|808}} Macapagal was defeated in [[1965 Philippine presidential election|1965]] by Senator [[Ferdinand Marcos]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Chronology of Events Leading to Marcos Resignation |url=https://apnews.com/article/81c64880d76b56f913bf02b0f8638600 |access-date=12 May 2021 |work=AP News |date=26 February 1986 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512114423/https://apnews.com/article/81c64880d76b56f913bf02b0f8638600 |archive-date=12 May 2021}}</ref>

[[File:Marcos Declares Martial Law.jpg|thumb|left|upright|President [[Ferdinand Marcos]] declares [[Martial law in the Philippines|martial law]].]]

The growing and diversifying economy of the 1960s led to a growth in private business power<ref name="Hedman2005"/>{{rp|78}} and an expansion in mass media.<ref name="Hedman2005"/>{{rp|80}} Marcos was the first president to be re-elected, in [[1969 Philippine presidential election|1969]], although the election was tainted by violence and allegations of fraud and vote buying.<ref name="Hedman2005"/>{{rp|87}} Civil unrest heightened after the election.<ref name="Hedman2005"/>{{rp|87}} [[Communist rebellion in the Philippines|Communist rebellion]] strengthened during Marcos' rule,<ref name="Abinales2005"/>{{rp|219–220}} and a [[Moro insurgency in the Philippines|Moro insurgency]] emerged in Mindanao.<ref name="Abinales2005"/>{{rp|216}} Marcos declared [[Martial law in the Philippines|martial law]] in 1972.<ref name="Hedman2005"/>{{rp|87}}

Attempts to end the war in Mindanao led Marcos to recognize Islamic holidays, introduce a code of Muslim personal laws, and formally recognize a number of sultans in Mindanao and Sulu.<ref name="Gross"/>{{rp|190–197}} Marcos framed his government as fighting against the rich landed elite that traditionally dominated politics. He relied on the growing technocratic civil service, who were receptive to such arguments, to effectively run the country under martial law.<ref name="Raquiza"/>{{rp|69–71}} Marcos also relied on the military, which gained increased power and resources during the martial law period.<ref name="Hedman-Sidel2000"/>{{rp|46–47}} A constitutional convention finalized a new constitution in November 1972,<ref name="HouseRepresentativesHistory">{{cite web |url=https://congress.gov.ph/about/?about=history |title=Philippine Congress History |publisher=House of Representatives |access-date=7 April 2021 |archive-date=May 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509171015/https://congress.gov.ph/about/?about=history |url-status=dead }}</ref> which introduced a [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] system.<ref name="Teehankee2017"/>

Marcos continued to rule by decree without elections until 1978, when the [[Interim Batasang Pambansa]] (IBP) legislature was elected.<ref name="Teehankee2017"/> Marcos had complete control over the bureaucracy, local governments, military, the press, and COMELEC. The [[1978 Philippine parliamentary election|1978 parliamentary]] and the [[1980 Philippine local elections|1980 local]] elections were dominated by Marcos' [[Kilusang Bagong Lipunan]] party.<ref name="Teehankee2017"/><ref name="Hedman2005"/>{{rp|88}} The unicameral IBP had little real power.<ref name="Aguiling-Pangalangan"/>{{rp|125}} The Supreme Court affirmed the expansive executive powers claimed under martial law.<ref name="Bernas"/>{{rp|10–11}} Marcos laid out a vision of a "new society", which would represent an end to old oligarchies.<ref name="White"/>{{rp|70}}

Some political dynasties who were not Marcos allies were stripped of assets and power,<ref name="McCoy"/>{{rp|41}} in many cases replaced in local politics by Marcos allies.<ref name="McCoy"/>{{rp|437}} Marcos ended martial law in 1981, shortly before a visit to the Philippines by [[Pope John Paul II]], although he retained immense executive powers.<ref name="Bernas"/>{{rp|12–13}} Opposition groups still boycotted the [[1981 Philippine presidential election|1981 presidential election]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Rosenberg |first1=David A. | title=Communism in the Philippines | publisher=Documentary Studies Section, International Information Administration | volume=33 |issue=1–6 | year=1984 | issn=0032-941X | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eU5GAQAAIAAJ | access-date=2022-04-14 |journal=Problems of Communism |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eU5GAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA4-PA45 45]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Franco |first1=Jennifer |title=Elections and Democratization in the Philippines |date=24 March 2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-54191-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LIkECwAAQBAJ&pg=PT295 |access-date=12 May 2021 |language=en}}</ref> which Marcos easily won.<ref name="Overholt">{{cite journal |last1=Overholt |first1=William H. |title=The Rise and Fall of Ferdinand Marcos |journal=Asian Survey |date=November 1986 |volume=26 |issue=11 |pages=1137–1163 |doi=10.2307/2644313 |jstor=2644313 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2644313|url-access=subscription}}</ref>{{rp|1151}} Opposition leader [[Benigno Aquino Jr.]] was slain upon his return to the Philippines in 1983.<ref name="ChasingtheWind"/>{{rp|97}}

By this time, the government was marred by a weak economy, rampant corruption, and a loss of political support.<ref name="Overholt"/>{{rp|1153–1154}} A [[United Nationalist Democratic Organization|united opposition]] participated in the [[1984 Philippine parliamentary election|1984 parliamentary election]], making gains.<ref name="Franco"/>{{rp|108}} A snap election saw the opposition nominate Benigno's widow Corazon as their candidate.<ref name="Bernas"/>{{rp|11}}<ref name="White"/>{{rp|70}} Marcos was declared the winner of the [[1986 Philippine presidential election|1986 election]], but the opposition refused to accept the result, alleging that the election was rigged. The [[People Power Revolution]] drove Marcos from power, and Aquino became president.<ref name="ChasingtheWind"/>{{rp|98}}

[[File:Corazon Aquino inauguration.jpg|thumb|[[Corazon Aquino]] was inaugurated president on February 25, 1986; it was one of two presidential inaugurations that day.]]

The 1987 constitution restored democracy along the lines of the 1935 constitution.<ref name="Teehankee2017"/> The new constitution introduced some elements of direct democracy.<ref name="Bernas"/>{{rp|6}} The [[1988 Philippine local elections|1988 local elections]] saw the traditional elite recapturing local political office.<ref name="Franco"/>{{rp|112}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ilano |first1=Alberto |title=The Philippines in 1988: On a Hard Road to Recovery |journal=Southeast Asian Affairs |date=1989 |pages=251–252 |jstor=27911979 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27911979|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Aquino's government was mired by [[1986–90 Philippine coup attempts|coup attempts]],<ref name="Bankoff"/> and saw continued rebellions by communists and Islamic separatists.<ref name="Franco"/>{{rp|109}} In 1991, a new Local Government Code shifted some power and resources to lower levels of government.<ref name="Franco"/>{{rp|115}}

Aquino did not wish to run for election again,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Avila |first1=John Laurence |title=Southeast Asian Affairs 1990 |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-24046-7 |page=268 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IGQPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA268 |chapter=A gathering crisis in the Philippines}}</ref> and leading up to the [[1992 Philippine presidential election|1992 presidential election]] she supported [[Fidel V. Ramos]], who had left her party to form his own.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Branigin |first1=William |title=Aquino Endorses Ex-aide |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1992/01/26/aquino-endorses-ex-aide/3a00bea3-fb08-4f1b-b756-e6e7a03039eb/ |access-date=10 April 2021 |newspaper=Washington Post |date=26 January 1992}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Putzel |first1=James |title=Democratization and Clan Politics: The 1992 Philippine Elections |journal=South East Asia Research |date=March 1, 1995 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=24–26 |doi=10.1177/0967828X9500300103 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0967828X9500300103}}</ref> Ramos won, albeit under controversial circumstances and allegations of electoral fraud.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Daljit |last2=Kiat |first2=Liak Teng |title=Southeast Asian Affairs 2005 |year=2005 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |isbn=978-981-230-306-6 |page=293 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZMBaxmiPJL8C&pg=PA293 |access-date=10 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Ramos Is Declared New President 6 Weeks After Philippine Election |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/06/23/world/ramos-is-declared-new-president-6-weeks-after-philippine-election.html |access-date=10 April 2021 |work=The New York Times |date=23 June 1992}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Guerrero |first1=Aileen |title=Cheating Apparently A Way Of Life In Philippine Politics With PM-Philippines-Election |url=https://apnews.com/article/5d31e6710e662582047c454ae4c84bbc |access-date=10 April 2021 |work=AP News |date=22 May 1992}}</ref> The [[1992 Philippine general election|1992 elections]] were the first to be synchronized, with presidential, legislative, and local elections held simultaneously.<ref name="Teehankee2002"/>{{rp|167–169}} With the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]] damaging the image of economy liberalism, and with no clear successor to Ramos,<ref name="Magno"/>{{rp|252–253}} Ramos's vice president [[Joseph Estrada]] won the [[1998 Philippine presidential election|1998 election]] with a comfortable margin on a populist campaign appealing directly to poorer voters.<ref name="Wataru"/>{{rp|95–97}}

The Estrada administration was embroiled in charges of cronyism and corruption, leading to his impeachment by the [[House of Representatives of the Philippines|House of Representatives]].<ref name="Abinales2005"/>{{rp|274–276}} In the [[Trial of Joseph Estrada|impeachment trial]], Estrada's allies in the Senate successfully prevented evidence to be presented, triggering [[2001 EDSA Revolution|massive protests]].<ref name="WashingtonPost2001">{{cite news |last1=Chandrasekaran |first1=Rajiv |title=Estrada Impeachment Trial Thrown Into Chaos |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2001/01/17/estrada-impeachment-trial-thrown-into-chaos/4f8f0b07-028b-4b15-a10c-fc0e51bcba41/ |access-date=16 April 2021 |newspaper=Washington Post |date=17 January 2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Bociurkiw |first1=Michael |title=Revolution by Cell Phone |url=https://www.forbes.com/asap/2001/0910/028.html |access-date=16 April 2021 |work=Forbes |date=2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010918183200/https://www.forbes.com/asap/2001/0910/028.html |archive-date=18 September 2001 |quote=When hundreds of thousands of protesters massed in central Manila in January to oust disgraced Philippine President Joseph Estrada, they were lured out of their homes and offices, not by megaphones or gunfire but by millions of instant messages broadcast to their cellular telephones.}}</ref> The military withdrew their support from Estrada and transferred their allegiance to Vice President Arroyo; the Supreme Court later ruled the presidency as vacant, and Estrada left [[Malacañang Palace]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Estrada leaves presidential palace |url=https://www.news24.com/news24/estrada-leaves-presidential-palace-20010120 |access-date=11 April 2021 |work=News24 |date=20 January 2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Philippines President to Resign |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=81657&page=1 |access-date=11 April 2021 |work=ABC News |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Rodrigo Duterte and his predecessors (Ramos, Estrada, Arroyo and Aquino III).jpg|thumb|left|Presidents [[Joseph Estrada]], [[Gloria Macapagal Arroyo]], [[Rodrigo Duterte]], [[Fidel V. Ramos]], and [[Benigno Aquino III]]]]

Arroyo was sworn in as president on January 20, 2001. Estrada's supporters launched their own [[EDSA III|mass movement]], which was ultimately unsuccessful.<ref name="Wataru"/>{{rp|101–103}}<ref>{{cite news |title=Rebellion' quashed in the Philippines |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/fyi/news/05/01/philippines/index.html |access-date=16 April 2021 |work=CNN |date=May 1, 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180107063320/http://edition.cnn.com/2001/fyi/news/05/01/philippines/index.html |archive-date=7 January 2018}}</ref> Arroyo's [[People Power Coalition]] won a majority of seats in the [[2001 Philippine general election|2001 elections]] and therefore consolidated power. In 2003, [[Oakwood Mutiny|a failed coup attempt]] took place in the central business district.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Banlaoi |first1=Rommel |title=Philippine Security in the Age of Terror: National, Regional, and Global Challenges in the Post-9/11 World |date=October 13, 2009 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4398-1551-9 |page=104 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hi_NBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA104 |access-date=31 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref> As she had served less than four years as president, Arroyo was eligible for re-election.<ref name="Gatmaytan-Mango"/>{{rp|7}} She won the [[2004 Philippine presidential election|2004 election]] with a slim plurality. It was later exposed that Arroyo [[Hello Garci scandal|rigged the election]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=SarDesai |first1=D. R. |title=Southeast Asia, Student Economy Edition: Past and Present |date=October 3, 2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-97268-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=USZhDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT269 |access-date=31 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref> This second term saw [[Manila Peninsula siege|another coup attempt]].<ref name="Dayley2019">{{cite book |last1=Dayley |first1=Robert |title=Southeast Asia in the New International Era |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-76888-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6_rADwAAQBAJ&pg=PT166 |access-date=16 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Grote-Beverborg |first1=Tobias |title=Failed Putsch Attempt in the Philippines |url=https://www.dw.com/en/failed-putsch-attempt-in-the-philippines/a-5213334 |access-date=16 April 2021 |work=DW News |date=29 November 2007}}</ref> By the end of her presidency, Arroyo was the most unpopular president since the 1986 People Power Revolution.<ref>{{cite news |title=Manila's Arroyo most unpopular leader since 86: poll |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-arroyo-idUSSP6098620080718 |access-date=31 January 2021 |work=Reuters |date=18 July 2008 |language=en}}</ref>

Before the [[2010 Philippine presidential election|2010 election]], former president Aquino died, and her son, [[Benigno Aquino III]], won the election.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gomez |first1=Jim |title=Aquino opens up lead in Philippine vote |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna37074632 |access-date=30 January 2021 |work=NBC News |date=11 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130234800/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna37074632 |archive-date=30 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Philippine elections get under way |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2010/5/10/philippine-elections-get-under-way |access-date=30 January 2021 |work=Al Jazeera |publisher=Al Jazeera Media Network |date=10 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130234628/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2010/5/10/philippine-elections-get-under-way |archive-date=30 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref> His administration was politically stable, seen as relatively clean, and had the highest ratings since Marcos.<ref name="DeinlaThompson">{{cite book |last=Thompson |first=Mark R. |title=From Aquino II to Duterte (2010–2018): Change, Continuity—and Rupture |date=June 10, 2019 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |editor1-last=Deinla |editor1-first=Imelda |editor2-last=Dressel |editor2-first=Björn |isbn=978-981-4843-28-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RVe_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 |chapter=The Rise of Illiberal Democracy in the Philippines: Duterte's Early Presidency}}</ref>{{rp|42–43}} While his popularity dipped towards the end of his administration, it was linked to perceptions about the failure of change within the wider political system, rather than to Aquino himself.<ref name="DeinlaThompson"/>{{rp|45}} In the [[2016 Philippine presidential election|2016 presidential election]], Aquino's [[Mar Roxas|handpicked successor]] was decisively defeated by [[Davao City]] mayor [[Rodrigo Duterte]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Official count: Duterte is new president, Robredo is vice president |url=https://cnnphilippines.com/news/2016/05/27/official-count-duterte-president-robredo-vp.html |access-date=30 January 2021 |work=CNN Philippines |date=28 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528155551/http://cnnphilippines.com/news/2016/05/27/official-count-duterte-president-robredo-vp.html |archive-date=28 May 2016 |url-status=dead |language=en }}</ref>

Duterte ran on a populist platform, winning votes from various socioeconomic classes, with particularly strong appeal to the middle classes.<ref name="DeinlaIntroduction"/>{{rp|18}} Duterte implemented a [[Philippine Drug War|War on Drugs]] that led to thousands of deaths.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Romero |first1=Alexis |title=Duterte gov't probing over 16,000 drug war-linked deaths as homicide, not EJK |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2017/12/26/1771944/duterte-govt-probing-over-16000-drug-war-linked-deaths-homicide-not-ejk |access-date=30 January 2021 |work=The Philippine Star |date=26 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103072433/http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2017/12/26/1771944/duterte-govt-probing-over-16000-drug-war-linked-deaths-homicide-not-ejk |archive-date=3 January 2018}}</ref> Duterte then prioritized [[Dutertenomics|infrastructure spending]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lema |first1=Karen |title=Beyond war on drugs, Philippines' Duterte seen setting up economic boom |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-economy-duterte-idUSKCN10X2A2 |access-date=19 April 2021 |work=Reuters |date=23 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822231619/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-economy-duterte-idUSKCN10X2A2 |archive-date=22 August 2016 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=de Vera |first1=Ben O. |last2=Yee |first2=Jovic |last3=Camus |first3=Miguel R. |title=Dutertenomics: 'Golden age of infrastructure' |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/890225/dutertenomics-golden-age-of-infrastructure#ixzz4mWLxrxbs |access-date=19 April 2021 |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |date=19 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422134513/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/890225/dutertenomics-golden-age-of-infrastructure |archive-date=22 April 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Malindog-Uy |first1=Anna |title="Build Build Build" Program Amid a Pandemic |url=https://theaseanpost.com/article/build-build-build-program-amid-pandemic |access-date=19 April 2021 |work=The ASEAN Post |date=13 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126174423/https://theaseanpost.com/article/build-build-build-program-amid-pandemic |archive-date=26 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref> and sought to end the communist insurgency.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Studies (IISS) |first1=The International Institute for Strategic |title=Armed Conflict Survey 2020 |date=25 May 2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-19224-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=13rnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT151 |access-date=10 April 2021 |language=en |chapter=Table 1}}</ref><ref name="SchreerTan2019">{{cite book |last1=Schreer |first1=Benjamin |last2=Tan |first2=Andrew T. H. |title=Terrorism and Insurgency in Asia: A contemporary examination of terrorist and separatist movements |date=1 Apr 2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-63224-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=twWQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT291 |access-date=19 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref> The administration made peace with the [[Moro Islamic Liberation Front]], replacing the ARMM with the more powerful [[Bangsamoro]] region.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Punzalan |first1=Jamaine |title=Duterte on Bangsamoro anniversary: 'Give full support to the BARMM' |url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/01/21/21/duterte-muslim-leaders-celebrate-2nd-bangsamoro-anniversary |access-date=30 January 2021 |work=ABS-CBN News |date=21 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126051235/https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/01/21/21/duterte-muslim-leaders-celebrate-2nd-bangsamoro-anniversary |archive-date=26 January 2021 |language=en |quote=The Bangsamoro or "nation of Moros" is the culmination of a tumultuous peace process separatist Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) and successive governments, aimed at ending conflict that has killed at least 120,000 people since the 1970s.}}</ref> The Duterte government has largely continued Aquino's economic policies, including those focused on the poor. Its political policies have shown a shift towards [[illiberal democracy]], with the politicization of legal institutions and less regard for checks and balances.<ref name="DeinlaIntroduction"/>{{rp|26–28}}

In May 2022, [[Bongbong Marcos|Ferdinand Marcos Jr]] (known by his nickname "Bongbong"), son of former president Ferdinand Marcos, received nearly 59 percent of the vote and won the [[2022 Philippine presidential election|presidential election]] by landslide. His vice presidential candidate was [[Sara Duterte]], daughter of then-president Rodrigo Duterte.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ferdinand Marcos Jr wins landslide election victory in the Philippines |url=https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20220509-ferdinand-marcos-jr-wins-landslide-election-victory-in-the-philippines |work=France 24 |date=9 May 2022 |language=en}}</ref> On 30 June 2022, Marcos was sworn in as the Philippine president and Sara Duterte was sworn in as vice-president.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ferdinand Marcos Jr sworn in as Philippines president, replacing Duterte |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61976940 |work=BBC News |date=30 June 2022}}</ref>