Editing Pawnee people (section)

==History==
[[File:La-Roo-Chuck-A-La-Shar-(Sun-Chief)-Pawnee.jpg|thumb|La-Roo-Chuck-A-La-Shar (Sun Chief) was a Pawnee chief who died fighting the Lakota at [[Massacre Canyon]].]]

===Before metal or horses===
The ancestors of the Pawnees also spoke [[Caddoan languages]] and had developed a semi-sedentary lifestyle in valley-bottom lands on the Great Plains. Unlike other groups of the Great Plains, they had a stratified society with priests and hereditary chiefs. Their religion included ritual cannibalism and human sacrifice.<ref name=Hyde1951>{{cite book |title=The Pawnee Indians |url=https://archive.org/details/pawneeindians0000hyde |url-access=registration |first=George E. |last=Hyde |orig-year=1951 |year=1974 |edition=New |series=The Civilization of the American Indian |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |location=Norman, OK |isbn=0-8061-2094-0}}</ref>{{rp|19–20, 28}}

At first contact, they lived through what is now Oklahoma and Kansas, and they reached Nebraska in about 1750. (Other Caddoan speakers lived in the Southern Plains into Texas and Arkansas, forming a belt of related populations along the eastern edge of the Great Plains.)
[[File:Caddoan langs.png|thumb|left|Approximate distribution of Caddoan-speakers in the early 19th century]]

They lived in spacious villages of [[grass lodge]]s and [[earth lodge]]s. These were unfortified, reflecting an assumption that large raiding parties would not arrive without warning. They did not need to rapidly coordinate defense against a large party of enemies.<ref name=Hyde1951/>{{rp|17}} The Pawnees, with the [[Wichita people|Wichita]] and [[Arikara people|Arikara]] survived European encroachment, and they all adapted to forming compact villages on high ground and surrounding them with ditch-and-wall defenses.<ref name=Hyde1951/>{{rp|4}} They lived most of the year in these well-insulated homes, but many would travel on multi-day communal deer hunts. Many also hunted [[American bison|buffalo]], which, before the induction of horses, was challenging and dangerous. 
[[File:Wichita Indian village 1850-1875.jpg|thumb|250px|left|A sketch of an early 19th-century [[Wichita (tribe)|Wichita Indian]] village. The beehive-shaped grass lodges surrounded by corn fields appear similar to those described by Coronado in 1541.]]

The first written records of Caddoans come from [[Francisco Vázquez de Coronado|Coronado]]'s ''entrada'' in 1541. With cavalry, steel weapons, and guns he had forced his way through the Apaches, Pueblos, and other nations of the modern southeastern US, but they had no gold. Coronado's interpreter repeated rumors (or confirmed Coronado's fantasies) that gold was to be had elsewhere in a location named [[Quivira]].

After more than 30-day journey, Coronado found a river larger than any he had seen before. This was the [[Arkansas River|Arkansas]], probably a few miles east of present-day [[Dodge City, Kansas]]. The Spaniards and their Indian allies followed the Arkansas northeast for three days and found Quivirans hunting buffalo. The Indians greeted the Spanish with wonderment and fear, but calmed down when one of Coronado's guides addressed them in their own language.

Coronado reached Quivira itself after a few more days of traveling. He found Quivira "well settled ... along good river bottoms, although without much water, and good streams which flow into another". Coronado believed that there were twenty-five settlements in Quivira. Both men and women Quivirans were nearly naked. Coronado was impressed with the size of the Quivirans and all the other Indians he met. They were "large people of very good build".<ref name=Winship1990>{{cite book |editor=Winship, George Parker |translator=Winship, George Parker |title=The Journey of Coronado 1540–1542 |year=1990 |pages=113, 209, 215, 234–237 |location=Golden, Colorado |publisher=Fulcrum Publishing |others=Introduction by Donald C. Cutter |isbn=1-55591-066-1}}</ref> Coronado spent 25 days among the Quivirans trying to learn of richer kingdoms just over the horizon. He found nothing but straw-thatched villages of up to two hundred houses and fields containing corn, beans, and squash. A copper pendant was the only evidence of wealth he discovered. The Quivirans were almost certainly Caddoans, and they built grass lodges as only the [[Wichita people|Wichita]] were still doing by 1898.<ref>Bolton, 293 and many subsequent scholars{{full citation needed|date=January 2019}}</ref><ref name=Hyde1951/>{{rp|29–33}}
[[File:Jan Mostaert - Landscape with a Scene of the Conquest of America.jpg|thumb|"Episode from the Conquest of America" by [[Jan Mostaert]] (c. 1545), probably Coronado in New Mexico]]

Coronado was escorted to the further edge of Quivira, called Tabas, where the neighboring land of Harahey began. He summoned the "Lord of Harahey" who, with two hundred followers, came to meet with the Spanish. He was disappointed in his hopes for riches. The Harahey Indians were "all naked – with bows, and some sort of things on their heads, and their privy parts slightly covered". Hyde identifies them as Awahis, the old Caddoan name for the Pawnees, possibly including the ancestors of the Skidis and the [[Arikara]]. Another group, the Guas, may have been known later as the Paniouace.<ref name=Hyde1951/>{{rp|33}} These people put up ferocious resistance when Coronado started to plunder their villages.<ref name=Winship1990/>

In 1601, [[Juan de Oñate]] led another ''entrada'' in search of the wealth of Quivira. He met "Escansaques", probably Apaches, who tried to persuade him to plunder and destroy "Quiviran" villages.

===Arrival of horses and metal weapons===
About 1670 the Apaches of the Southern Plains obtained horses and metal weapons in sufficient quantity to make them the dread of all their neighbors. For some decades the Pawnees were the victims of intensive raiding by large bands of mounted Apaches with iron weapons, and also by war parties of [[Chickasaw]]s and [[Choctaw]]s from the east who had firearms as well. The [[Dhegihan languages|Siouan]] groups that became [[Quapaw]]s, [[Osage Nation|Osage]]s, [[Omaha people|Omaha]]s, [[Ponca]]s and [[Kaw people|Kansa]]s also appeared on the Plains about this time, driven west by the expansion of the [[Iroquois]], and they too raided the Pawnees.<ref name=Hyde1951/>{{rp|54–56}} Archaeology indicates that pressure from hostile Apaches may have persuaded the Skidi Pawnees to move from their settlements on the [[Republican River]] to the upper [[Loup River]] in the course of the next century or so.<ref name=Hyde1951/>{{rp|43, 50, 51}} Their settlement pattern also changed from little villages of small rectangular earth-lodges to more defensible larger, compact villages of larger, circular lodges, the Skidis uniting in this way about 1680 while their close relations the Arikaras established a separate identity.<ref name=Hyde1951/>{{rp|51–55}}

===Pawnees enslaved===
{{main|Panis (slaves of First Nation descent)}}
In [[French Canada]], [[Slavery in Canada|Indian slaves]] were generally called ''[[Panis (slaves of First Nation descent)|Panis]]'' (anglicized to Pawnee), as most, during this period, had been captured from the Pawnee tribe or their relations. Pawnee became synonymous with "Indian slave" in general use in Canada, and a slave from any tribe came to be called ''Panis.'' As early as 1670, a reference was recorded to a ''Panis'' in Montreal.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QBaTtGgyWakC&q=Pawnee+slaves+in+Canada&pg=PA263 |first=Carter Godwin |last=Woodson |date=July 1920 |title=The Slave in Canada |journal=The Journal of Negro History |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=263–264 |access-date=17 November 2009}}</ref> <blockquote>"In the middle of the 17th century the Pawnees were being savagely raided by eastern tribes that had obtained metal weapons from the French, which gave them a terrible advantage over Indians who had only weapons of wood, flint, and bone. The raiders carried off such great numbers of Pawnees into slavery, that in the country on and east of the upper Mississippi the name Pani developed a new meaning: ''slave''. The French adopted this meaning, and Indian slaves, no matter from which tribe they had been taken, were presently being termed ''Panis''. It was at this period, after the middle of the 17th century, that the name was introduced into New Mexico in the form ''Panana'' by bands of mounted [[Apache]]s who brought large numbers of Pawnee slaves to trade to the Spaniards and Pueblo Indians." George E. Hyde, ''The Pawnee Indians'' <ref name="Hyde1951" /><sup>:24</sup></blockquote>Raiders primarily targeted women and children, to be sold as slaves. In 1694, Apaches brought a large number of captive children to the trading fair in [[New Mexico]], but for some reason, there were not enough buyers, so the Apaches beheaded all their slaves in full view of the Spaniards.<ref name="Hyde1951" />{{rp|46}}

By 1757 [[Louis Antoine de Bougainville]] considered that the Panis nation "plays ... the same role in America that the Negroes do in Europe."<ref name="Canada's Forgotten Slaves">{{cite book |title=Canada's Forgotten Slaves |first1=Marcel |last1=Trudel |first2=Micheline |last2=d'Allaire |orig-year=1963 |translator=George Tombs |year=2013 |publisher=Véhicule Press |page=64}}</ref> The historian [[Marcel Trudel]] documented that close to 2,000&nbsp;"panis" [[slavery|slaves]] lived in [[Canada]] until the abolition of slavery in the colony in 1833.<ref name="Canada's Forgotten Slaves" /> Indian slaves comprised close to half of the known slaves in [[French Canada]] (also called Lower Canada).

===Pawnees acquire metal and horses===

By 1719 when [[Jean-Baptiste Bénard de la Harpe|de la Harpe]] led an expedition to Caddoan lands at the mouth of the [[Arkansas River]], the Pawnees had also acquired horses and metal weapons from French traders, and they were attacking Apaches in turn, destroying their villages and carrying off Apache women and children.<ref name=Hyde1951/>{{rp|57}} In 1720, [[Pierre Dugué de Boisbriand|Boisbriant]] reported that the Paniassas or Black Pawnees had recently captured a hundred Apaches, whom they were burning, a few each day.<ref name=Hyde1951/>{{rp|76}} de&nbsp;la&nbsp;Harpe planned to establish French trading posts at the mouth of the [[Canadian River]] and elsewhere in Caddoan territory, but this was not done and the Pawnee remained dependent on infrequent and casual traders, while their enemies – the Osages – benefited from a regular trade.

In 1720, Spanish colonists sent the [[Villasur expedition]] try to turn the Pawnees away from their French connections (which had been greatly magnified in Spanish imagination). Guided mainly by Apaches and led by an officer lacking experience with Indians, the expedition approached the Skidi Pawnee villages along the outflow of the [[Loup River]] into the [[Platte River]] in modern Nebraska. The expedition sent their only Pawnee slave to make contact; he did not obtain any welcome for the Spanish party and he failed to return to the Spanish camp. The Pawnees attacked at dawn, shooting heavy musketry fire and flights of arrows, then charging into combat clad only in paint, headband, moccasins and short leggings.<ref name=Hyde1951/>{{rp|75–76}}<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Segesser Hide paintings: History, discovery, art |first=Thomas E. |last=Chavez |journal=Great Plains Quarterly |department=Center for Great Plains Studies |publisher=University of Nebraska |location=Lincoln |date=1 January 1990 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1412&context=greatplainsquarterly}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nmhistorymuseum.org/hides/ |website=NMHistorymuseum.org |series=The Segesser Hides Explorer |title=Virtual tour of the hides |access-date=2018-05-20 |archive-date=2013-09-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130918205949/http://www.nmhistorymuseum.org/hides/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Villasur, 45 other Spaniards, and 11 Pueblos were killed, and the survivors fled.<ref name=Hyde1951/>{{rp|66–69}} In 1721, pressure on the Pawnees was increased by the establishment of a colony in [[Arkansas]] by [[John Law (economist)|John Law]]'s [[Mississippi Company]]; this settlement too formed a market for Indian (mostly Caddoan) slaves and a convenient source of weapons for the Osages and their relations.

The French responded by sending [[Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont|Bourgmont]] to make peace (in the French interest) between the Pawnees and their enemies in 1724. He reported that the Pawnee were a strong tribe and good horsemen, but, located at the far end of every trade route for European goods, were unfamiliar with Europeans and were treated like country bumpkins by their southern relatives. The mutual hatred between Pawnees and Apaches was so great that both sides were cooking and eating many of their captives.<ref name=Hyde1951/>{{rp|47}} Bourgmont's "peace" had little effect.

In 1739 the [[Pierre Antoine and Paul Mallet|Mallet brothers]] visited the Skidi Pawnee. In 1750 the Skidis were reported to be ruled by a grand chief who had 900 warriors.

From about 1760, [[smallpox]] epidemics broke out on the Great Plains, reducing the Skidi from eight large villages in 1725 to one by 1800.

===Increasing contact with English-speakers, ongoing tribal warfare===
[[File:Seymour Pawnees 1819.jpg|thumb|Pawnees in a parley with Major [[Stephen Harriman Long|Long]]'s expedition at [[Engineer Cantonment]], near Council Bluffs, Iowa, in October 1819]]
A Pawnee tribal delegation visited [[Thomas Jefferson|President Thomas Jefferson]]. In 1806 Lieutenant [[Zebulon Pike]], Major G. C. Sibley, [[Major S. H. Long]], among others, began visiting the Pawnee villages. Under pressure from Siouan tribes and European-American settlers, the Pawnee ceded territory to the United States government in treaties in 1818, 1825, [[Treaty with the Pawnee (1833)|1833]], 1848, [[Treaty with the Pawnee (1857)|1857]], and 1892. In 1857, they settled on the [[Pawnee Reservation]] along the Loup River in present-day [[Nance County, Nebraska]], but maintained their traditional way of life. They were subjected to continual raids by [[Lakota people|Lakota]] from the north and west.

[[File:Sharitarish - Wicked Chief - by Charles Bird King, c1822.jpg|thumb|left|1822 portrait of [[Sharitahrish]] by [[Charles Bird King]], on display in the [[Library (White House)|Library]] of the [[White House]]]] Until the 1830s, the Pawnee in what became United States territory were relatively isolated from interaction with Europeans. As a result, they were not exposed to [[Eurasia]]n infectious diseases, such as [[measles]], [[smallpox]], and [[cholera]], to which Native Americans had no [[Immunity (medical)|immunity]].<ref name=ohs/> In the 19th century, however, they were pressed by Siouan groups encroaching from the east, who also brought diseases. Epidemics of [[smallpox]] and [[cholera]], and [[endemic warfare]] with the [[Sioux]] and [[Cheyenne]]<ref name=Hyde1951/>{{rp|85–336}} caused dramatic mortality losses among the Pawnee. From an estimated population of 12,000 in the 1830s, they were reduced to 3,400 by 1859, when they were forcibly constrained to a reservation in modern-day [[Nance County, Nebraska]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usgennet.org/usa/ne/county/nance/olres/souvenir/journal05.htm#pawnee |title=History of Nance County, Nebraska |series=NEGenWeb Project |publisher=Usgennet.org }}{{Dead link|date=May 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

[[File:Cheyenne warrior Alights on the Cloud in his armor, 1852.jpg|thumb|upright 0.5|Cheyenne warrior Alights on the Cloud in his armor. [[Killing of Alights on the Cloud|He was killed]] during an attack on a Pawnee hunting camp in 1852.]]

The Pawnee won a "hard fought" defensive [[The Pawnee capture of the Cheyenne's Sacred Arrows|battle around 1830]], when they defeated the whole Cheyenne tribe.<ref name=Dorsey1903>{{cite journal |author=Dorsey, George E. |date= October–December 1903 |title=How the Pawnee captured the Cheyenne medicine arrows |journal=American Anthropologist |series=New Series |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=644–658 |doi=10.1525/aa.1903.5.4.02a00030|url= https://zenodo.org/record/2252040 }}</ref>{{rp|647}} A Pitahawirata Pawnee captured one of the most sacred tribal bundles of the Cheyenne, the Sacred Arrows, and Skidi Chief Big Eagle secured it quickly.<ref name=Dorsey1903/>{{rp|649}} The Cheyennes stopped fighting at once and returned to their own country.<ref name=Hyde1987>{{cite book |author=Hyde, George E. |year=1987 |title=Life of George Bent. Written from his letters |location=Norman, OK}}</ref>{{rp|51}}

The Pawnees in the village of Chief Blue Coat suffered a severe defeat on 27&nbsp;June 1843. A force of Lakotas [[The Battle at Pawnee Chief Blue Coat's Village, 1843|attacked the village]], killed more than 65&nbsp;inhabitants and burned 20&nbsp;earth lodges.<ref name=LettersKHC>{{cite journal |title=Letters Concerning the Presbyterian Mission in the Pawnee Country, near Bellevue, Nebraska, 1831–1849 |journal=Kansas Historical Collections |volume=14 |date=1915–1919 |page=730}}</ref>

In 1852, a combined Indian force of Cheyennes and invited Kiowa and Kiowa Apaches attacked a Pawnee camp in Kansas during the summer hunt.<ref name=Murie1981>{{cite book |author=Murie, James R. |year=1981 |title=Ceremonies of the Pawnee. The south bands |location=Washington, DC}}</ref>{{rp|200}}<ref name=Hyde1987/>{{rp|92}} First when a Pawnee shot a very reckless Cheyenne with an arrow in the eye, it was discovered he wore a hidden scale mailed armor under his shirt.<ref name=Densmore1929>{{cite book |author=Densmore, Frances |year=1929 |title=Pawnee Music |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |department=Bureau of American Ethnology |id=Bulletin 93 |location=Washington, DC}}</ref>{{rp|59}} [[Killing of Alights on the Cloud|The killing of this notable Cheyenne]] affected the Cheyennes to the point, that they carried their Sacred Arrows against the Pawnee the following summer in an all-out war.<ref name=Grinnell1910>{{cite journal |author=Grinnell, George Bird |title=The Great Mysteries of the Cheyenne |journal=American Anthropologist |series=New Series |volume=12 |issue=4 |date=October–December 1910 |pages=542–575 |doi=10.1525/aa.1910.12.4.02a00070|doi-access=free }}</ref>{{rp|571}}

Warriors enlisted as [[Pawnee Scouts]] in the latter half of the 19th century in the [[United States Army]]. Like other groups of Native American scouts, Pawnee warriors were recruited in large numbers to fight on the Northern and Southern Plains in various conflicts against hostile Native Americans. Because the Pawnee people were old enemies of the Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Comanche, and Kiowa tribes, they served with the army for 14 years between 1864 and 1877, earning a reputation as being a well-trained unit, especially in tracking and reconnaissance. The Pawnee Scouts took part with distinction in the [[Battle of the Tongue River]] during the [[Powder River Expedition (1865)]] against Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho and in the [[Battle of Summit Springs]]. They also fought with the US in the [[Great Sioux War of 1876]]. On the Southern Plains, they fought against their old enemies, the Comanches and Kiowa, in the [[Comanche Campaign]].

===Relocation and reservation===
 [[File:Cloud-Shield's winter count (Lakota). 1873-74. Massacre Canyon battle, Nebraska.png|thumb|Cloud-Shield's Lakota Winter Count for the years 1873–1874. Massacre Canyon battle, Nebraska. "They killed many Pawnees on the Republican River."<ref>{{cite book |author=Mallory, Gerrick |year=1886 |title=The Corbusier Winter Counts |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |volume=4th |series=Annual Report to the Bureau of Ethnology |at=page facing p.&nbsp;145}}</ref>]]
As noted above, the Pawnee were subjected to continual raids by Lakota from the north and west. On one such raid, 5&nbsp;August 1873, a Sioux war party of over 1,000 warriors ambushed a Pawnee hunting party of 350&nbsp;men, women, and children. The Pawnee had gained permission to leave the reservation and hunt buffalo. About 70&nbsp;Pawnee were killed in this attack, which occurred in a canyon in present-day [[Hitchcock County, Nebraska|Hitchcock County]]. The site is known as [[Massacre Canyon]]. Because of the ongoing hostilities with the Sioux and encroachment from American settlers to the south and east, the Pawnee decided to leave their Nebraska reservation in the 1870s and settle on a new reservation in [[Indian Territory]], located in what is today Oklahoma.

In 1874, the Pawnee requested relocation to [[Indian Territory]] (Oklahoma), but the stress of the move, diseases, and poor conditions on their reservation reduced their numbers even more. During this time, outlaws often smuggled whiskey to the Pawnee. The teenaged female bandits [[Little Britches (outlaw)|Little Britches]] and [[Cattle Annie]] were imprisoned for this crime.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ranchdivaoutfitters.com/cattleannielittlebritches.html |title=Cattle Annie & Little Britches, taken from Lee Paul |publisher=ranchdivaoutfitters.com |access-date=December 27, 2012 |df=dmy-all |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130325060908/http://www.ranchdivaoutfitters.com/cattleannielittlebritches.html |archive-date=March 25, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 1875 most members of the nation moved to Indian Territory, a large area reserved to receive tribes displaced from east of the Mississippi River and elsewhere. The warriors resisted the loss of their freedom and culture, but gradually adapted to reservations. On 23&nbsp;November 1892, the Pawnee in Oklahoma were forced by the US federal government to sign an agreement with the [[Cherokee Commission]] to accept individual allotments of land in a breakup of their communal holding.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Deloria |first1=Vine J. Jr. |last2=DeMaille |first2=Raymond J. |title=Documents of American Indian Diplomacy Treaties, Agreements, and Conventions, 1775–1979 |pages=361–363 |year=1999 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0-8061-3118-4}}</ref>

By 1900, the Pawnee population was recorded by the US Census as 633. Since then the tribe has begun to recover in numbers.<ref name=Weltfish1977/>{{rp|3–4}}

===Recent history===
[[File:General douglas macarthur meets american indian troops wwii military pacific navajo pima island hopping.JPG|thumb|General [[Douglas MacArthur]] meeting [[Navajo people|Navajo]], [[Pima people|Pima]], Pawnee, and other [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] troops]]

In 1906, in preparation for statehood of Oklahoma, the US government dismantled the Pawnee tribal government and civic institutions. The tribe reorganized under the [[Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act]] of 1936 and established the Pawnee Business Council, the Nasharo (Chiefs) Council, and a tribal constitution, bylaws, and charter.<ref name=ohs/>

In the 1960s, the government settled a suit by the Pawnee Nation regarding their compensation for lands ceded to the US government in the 19th century. By an out-of-court settlement in 1964, the Pawnee Nation was awarded $7,316,097 for land ceded to the US and undervalued by the federal government in the previous century.<ref>{{cite book |id=78 Stat. 585 (1964)|author1-link=David J. Wishart |author=Wishart, David J. |year=1985 |article=The Pawnee Claims Case, 1947–64 |pages=157–186 |title=Irredeemable America: The Indians' Estate and Land Claims |editor=Sutton, I. |location=Albuquerque, NM |publisher=University of New Mexico Press}}</ref>

Bills such as the [[Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act]] of 1975 have allowed the Pawnee Nation to regain some of its self-government. The Pawnee continue to practice cultural traditions, meeting twice a year for the intertribal gathering with their kinsmen the [[Wichita Indians]]. They have an annual four-day Pawnee Homecoming for Pawnee veterans in July. Many Pawnee also return to their traditional lands to visit relatives and take part in scheduled [[powwow]]s.