Editing Paul of Greece (section)

==Reign==
===Accession===
[[File:Ordenspatron König Paul I.png|thumb|right|175px|Paul (''left'') and Frederica (''middle'') with German President [[Theodor Heuss]] (''right'') in Germany in 1954]]
Paul succeeded to the throne on 1 April 1947 upon the death of his childless elder brother, George II, during the Greek Civil War. Paul and his family left their villa in Psychiko and moved to Tatoi after major work had been done to restore the palace. The family continuously moved between Tatoi and Psychiko due to building disruptions until 1949 when they moved in permanently.{{sfn|Mateos Sáinz de Medrano|2004|pp=119–120}} Paul and Frederica spoke English to each other and to their children despite being fluent in the Greek language.{{sfn|Mateos Sáinz de Medrano|2004|p=120}} Paul frequently read, told stories and listened to classical music in the presence of his daughters,{{sfn|Mateos Sáinz de Medrano|2004|pp=131–132}} who later attended a boarding school in [[Salem, Baden-Württemberg|Salem]] to complete their education. The two girls were influenced by the teachings of [[Kurt Hahn]], a Judo-German teacher whose ideas were commonly found as principles in royal families of German origin. Meanwhile, the new Crown Prince, Constantine, was sent by Paul and Frederica to the [[Anavryta Experimental Lyceum]] in [[Marousi]].{{sfn|Mateos Sáinz de Medrano|2004|pp=123–124}}{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=216 and 300}}

Starting in 1947, Paul and Frederica took their children to Falken, Austria, for a skiing holiday every winter, and to Petalis in the summer, where the family was lent yachts.{{sfn|Mateos Sáinz de Medrano|2004|p=127}} On these holidays, Frederica's German relatives were frequently invited, such as princes and princesses of the royal houses of [[House of Baden|Baden]], [[House of Hesse|Hesse]], [[House of Hanover|Hanover]] and [[Hohenlohe]]. In 1947, Paul was unable to attend the wedding of Prince Philip to the future [[Elizabeth II]] as he was suffering from [[typhoid fever]].{{sfn|Van der Kiste|1994|p=177}} In addition to their German relatives, members of the [[House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov|Romanov dynasty]] who had not been murdered after the [[Russian Revolution]] were often welcomed at Tatoi. In June 1948, the wedding of Michael I of Romania and [[Anne of Bourbon-Parma]] was held in Athens.{{sfn|Mateos Sáinz de Medrano|2004|pp=122–123}}

During Paul's early reign, there was tension between certain members of the Greek royal family. Paul and his cousin, Peter, maintained a strained relationship after the royal family accused him of entering a [[Mésalliance|misalliance]] by marrying [[Irina Ovtchinnikova]], a divorced Russian commoner.{{sfn|Mateos Sáinz de Medrano|2004|p=130}} Paul's aunt, [[Princess Alice of Battenberg]], who was the mother of Prince Philip, regularly engaged in disagreements with Frederica, who she thought was clumsy and scared of her sister-in-law, [[Grand Duchess Elena Vladimirovna of Russia|Elena Vladimirovna of Russia]].{{sfn|Mateos Sáinz de Medrano|2004|p=256}}

===Greek Civil War and Cyprus problem===
{{See also|Greek Civil War|Cyprus problem}}
Paul's contraction of typhoid fever immobilised him for several weeks and caused fears for his health, concurrent to the ongoing Greek Civil War, in which [[guerrilla warfare]] conducted by communists continued in the north of the country. Communists in [[Greek Macedonia|Macedonia]] attempted to proclaim a [[people's republic]].{{sfn|Mateos Sáinz de Medrano|2004|p=121}} On Christmas Day 1947, communist militias initiated an attack on [[Konitsa]], and Paul wished to walk through the frontlines but was unable to due to his health. Instead, Frederica held numerous talks between her and the fighting soldiers. At a point in time, Frederica herself travelled to the Epirus frontline, which, according to Hourmouzios, boosted her popularity and branded her a "strong and courageous woman".{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=189 and 192–193}}

On 15 October 1949, the communist forces retreated, which caused large celebrations within the army, also due to higher tensions in [[Soviet Union–Yugoslavia relations]], which slowed support for the Greek communists.{{sfn|Mateos Sáinz de Medrano|2004|p=123}}{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=210–212 and 217}} By the end of the civil war, around 158,000 people had been killed and approximately 100,000 to 200,000 [[Refugees of the Greek Civil War|civil war refugees]] were deported by [[Eastern Bloc]] nations. Thousands of Churches, schools, factories, and homes were destroyed or incapable of functioning.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|p=213}} In response to these damages, Paul and Frederica created the Her Majesty's Fund foundation in 1947 to give financial aid to victims of the civil war.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=181 and 197}}

In June 1952, Paul and Frederica made an official state visit to Turkey to ease [[Greco-Turkish relations]]. The Turkish government invited the couple to the [[Hagia Sophia]], a Greek Orthodox Church that had been converted into a mosque and then to a museum, but they declined, instead only visiting the tomb of Mustafa Kemal. The state visit marked the first time a Greek head of state had made a state visit to Turkey, which had occupied Greece for over 400 years. This improved relations between the two nations.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=247–248}}{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=268–273}} Paul also worked to facilitate [[Greece–Yugoslavia relations|Greco-Yugoslav relations]] by making a state visit to [[Belgrade]] in September 1955. The following year, Yugoslav President [[Josip Broz Tito]] and First Lady [[Jovanka Broz]] privately met Paul and Frederica in Corfu.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=274, 283 and 286}} Paul and Frederica also made state visits to the United Kingdom in 1952 and 1963,{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|p=246–247 and 340–343}} to the United States in 1953,{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|p=263}} to France and [[West Germany]] in 1956,{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|p=283}} to Switzerland in 1958,{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|p=302}} to Ethiopia and Italy in 1959,{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|p=311}} and to India and Thailand in 1963.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|p=327}}

During his visit to the United Kingdom in 1952, Paul walked behind the coffin of [[George VI]] during his [[Death and state funeral of George VI|state funeral]] procession. Alongside Paul were members of the British royal family, [[Haakon VII]] of Norway, [[Frederik IX]] of Denmark, [[Gustaf VI Adolf]] of Sweden and President [[Vincent Auriol]] of France.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bonnet|first=Dominique|title=La procession funéraire du roi George VI dans Londres a duré plus de trois heures|work=[[Paris Match]]|date=17 February 2022|url=https://www.parismatch.com/Royal-Blog/La-procession-funeraire-du-roi-George-VI-dans-Londres-a-dure-plus-de-trois-heures-1788863}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=May 2024}} Paul and Frederica also made trips to different regions of Greece. Every year on 21 February, the liberation day of [[Ioannina]], on 26 October, the liberation day of Thessaloniki, and on 30 November, the liberation day of [[Patras]] and [[Saint Andrew's Day]], Paul and Frederica would celebrate these regional festivities. Paul also habitually ensured that Greece's borders with its neighbours were secured. Paul also travelled to the destruction sites of natural disasters, such as the [[1953 Ionian earthquake]], [[1955 Volos earthquake]] and [[1956 Amorgos earthquake]].{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=262 and 290}}

In order to promote the then barely developed tourism on the [[List of islands of Greece|Greek islands]], Paul and Frederica invited all ruling and former ruling European royal families to a cruise between the islands in 1954, for which the shipowner Pétros Nomikós made his passenger ship ''Agamemnon'' available. Over 100 guests took part in this 14-day voyage, which became known as the "[[Cruise of the Kings]]" and was repeated in 1956 on the ship ''Achilles'' between Athens and Corfu.<ref>[[Franz von Bayern|Francis of Bavaria]] (with Marita Krauss): ''Zuschauer in der ersten Reihe: Erinnerungen'' (Front row audience: memories), publisher C. H. Beck, 2023, p. 128−132. According to his memory, all European royal dynasties, who considered themselves a large family, except the British royal family, took part in this cruise.</ref> [[Albrecht, Duke of Bavaria]], and his family took part in these trips, which is why he decided to return to Paul the [[Greek crown jewels]] of the Wittelsbach king [[Otto of Greece]], who had been deposed in 1862. Albrecht's son [[Prince Max, Duke in Bavaria|Prince Max]] presented these to Paul in December 1959. It had been almost a century since they were last in Greece.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}

[[File:Makarios III and Robert F. Wagner NYWTS cropped.jpg|left|180px|thumb|President of Cyprus, Archbishop Makarios III, worked closely with Paul to achieve enosis.]]
Earlier in 1948, the government of the United Kingdom announced its intentions to constitutionally reform their colony in [[British Cyprus|Cyprus]], an island inhabited by Greeks. Despite Greek visits to the United Kingdom, links with Britain became strained over Cyprus, where the majority Greek population favored union with Greece, which Britain, as the colonial power, would not endorse. The idea of a union between Greece and Cyprus became known as [[enosis]].{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|p=199}} Archbishop [[Makarios III]] called for Cypriots to reject Britain's reforms and protest in favour of enosis. Paul released a public statement via ''[[The New York Times]]'' in which he declared his support for enosis.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|p=200}} The Greek government had not been informed of Paul's plans to release his opinion and was initially stunted, but accepted the public's approval of Paul's support.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=200–201}} Cyprus had been an issue of contention since the conclusion of the Greek Civil War and at George VI's funeral, Paul unsuccessfully attempted to host talks with the British government to achieve enosis.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|p=247}} Paul additionally tried to prove to the British that Cyprus' fate should be determined by the native Cypriot inhabitants. During his visit to Turkey, Paul also initiated talks regarding enosis, which would affect the [[Turkish Cypriots|Turkish Cypriot]] minority on the island.{{sfn|Van der Kiste|1994|p=18}}{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|p=251}}

[[Greece–United Kingdom relations|Greco-British relations]] were further strained when Archbishop Makarios III was greeted in Athens in 1953 and again in 1954.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=260–261 and 265}} This led the British government to declare that enosis was "unthinkable" and drafted a new constitution for Cyprus.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|p=268}} Greek Prime Minister [[Alexandros Papagos]] submitted a document outlining the issues of the [[Cyprus problem]] to the [[United Nations]], while [[EOKA]] and General [[Georgios Grivas]] led an independence movement.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=268–269}} The British government invited Greek and Turkish delegates to London for mediation talks on 29 August 1955. The talks only resulted in stiff relations between Greece, Turkey, and Britain. Paul and Greece's reputation in Turkey was then damaged by the [[Istanbul pogrom]].{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|p=270}}

After the British government arrested Archbishop Makarios III and deported him to the [[Seychelles]], anti-British sentiment in Greece grew as displayed through protests in some of Greece's largest cities. The Greek ambassador to London was subsequently dismissed from office. Paul made known his frustration with the situation and made speeches to the United Nations, calling for enosis.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=281–283}} Archbishop Makarios III was released on 28 March 1957 as a result of pressure from American President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], while there were numerous accounts of terrorism in Cyprus.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=291–293}} The Turkish government then proposed ''[[Taksim (politics)|Taksim]]'', which would divide Cyprus between Greece and Turkey, however, both Greece and Paul opposed this idea. As violence between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots grew, the United Kingdom suggested that Cyprus become a shared Anglo-Greco-Turkish [[Condominium (international law)|condominium]], but Archbishop Makarios III and Paul rejected this as it went against the wishes of the Greek and Greek Cypriot population.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|p=302}} On 10 September 1958, Paul made another speech, while in Switzerland, again declaring his support for enosis.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=302–303}} In the United Kingdom, the press accused Paul of supporting the terrorism conducted by Greek Cypriot nationalists. On 5 February 1959, the [[London and Zürich Agreements]] established the resumption of real negotiations between Greece and Turkey, to the delight of Paul. Eventually, Cyprus became an independent state in 1960.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=308–311}}

===Economic miracle and growing authoritarianism===
Greece was one of the first nations to benefit from the [[Marshall Plan]] and took advantage of American economic aid.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=182 and 222}} Between 1948 and 1952, Greece received over [[US dollar|US$]]376 million in financial aid from the United States.{{sfn|Woodhouse|1998|p=282}} Economic growth was also due to growing political stability within Greece, something that Paul was greatly credited for. In eleven years, Greece was governed by only two prime ministers, Papagos and [[Konstantinos Karamanlis]], a record for the past few decades.{{sfn|Woodhouse|1998|p=265}} Alongside ''[[Wirtschaftswunder]]'', agriculture, industry, mining and tourism boomed. The [[Modern drachma|Greek drachma]] stabilised, while many Greeks moved into West Germany to send back large parts of their incomes. Economists, however, continued to worry about the fact that Greece's economy was very reliant on foreign loans and a majority of food consumed needed to be imported into the country. In addition, one-third of the national budget was spent on the military and defence.{{sfn|Woodhouse|1998|pp=267, 273 and 282}}

Although written out as a [[constitutional monarchy]], critics of Greece's politics claimed that the country contained traits of an [[Absolute monarchy|authoritarian monarchy]].{{sfn|Van der Kiste|1994|p=20}} The [[Constitutional history of Greece|Greek constitution of 1952]] granted extensive powers to the king, more than that of other European monarchs. Throughout Europe, Paul was subject to accusations of limiting democracy by the media, though both Van der Kriste and Hourmouzios state that many of these reports were exaggerated.{{sfn|Van der Kiste|1994|pp=180–181 and 182}}{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=323–325}} The media used Paul's quick political stance to the Cyprus problem, his travel to Britain in 1963 despite the prime minister's recommendation and his close links with higher ranking staff in the Greek army as examples of these accusations. The cost of the monarchy was also questioned, and Paul and Frederica were accused of spending public funds for their own personal holidays and expensive lifestyle while having a lack of worry for the Greek public. The couple were also accused of taking money from Her Majesty's Fund for their personal use.{{sfn|Woodhouse|1998|p=283}}{{sfn|Van der Kiste|1994|pp=180–181 and 182}}{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=323–325}} One of the greatest critics of the monarchy was the leader of the opposition, [[Georgios Papandreou]]. Papandreou made the words in one of his speeches – "The king reigns, but does not govern" – his motto and boycotted several royal events.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|p=320}}

===Later reign===
On 2 June 1958, Crown Prince Constantine turned 18 and thus commenced his royal duties. Constantine often shadowed Paul, who taught him the role of being the monarch. Paul was also very weary of the struggles he and his brother faced and wished to teach Constantine ways of avoiding the types of issues they experienced.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=299–300}} Since the age of six, Constantine accompanied Paul in his sailing trips, and in December 1958, Paul and Frederica gifted him with his private sailboat. Constantine trained daily with [[Odysseus Eskitzoglou]] and [[Georgios Zaimis]]. With the support of Paul, the three enrolled to participate in the [[1960 Summer Olympics]]. On 7 September 1960, they won a gold medal in the sailing event at the Olympics. It was marked with celebrations in Greece, being the second time Greece had won a gold medal in the [[Modern Olympics]], the first being at the [[1896 Summer Olympics]] and won by [[Spyridon Louis]].{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=314–315}}{{sfn|Mateos Sáinz de Medrano|2004|p=133}} Paul was also pleased with [[Wedding of Prince Juan Carlos and Princess Sophia|the wedding of his eldest daughter]], Sofía, to [[Juan Carlos I|Prince Juan Carlos of Spain]], who was the heir to the Spanish throne. After having first met on the Cruise of the Kings, Sofía and Juan Carlos reunited at the Rome Olympics, where their relationship and future marriage was pathed.{{sfn|Hourmouzios|1972|pp=320–321}}{{sfn|Mateos Sáinz de Medrano|2004|p=133}}

In early 1963, Frederica was invited to attend [[Wedding of Princess Alexandra and Angus Ogilvy|the wedding of Princess Alexandra of Kent and Angus Ogilvy]]. Karamanlis persisted that she did not go to the wedding due to tensions between Athens and London over the Cyprus problem. Karamanlis feared that their attendance at the British royal wedding would create public uproar and opposition. However, Frederica did not listen to his advice and when she arrived in London, English tabloids released photos from the 1930s that showed Frederica and her brothers in the [[Hitler Youth]] uniform, describing her as a right-wing extremist with an iron fist.{{sfn|Mateos Sáinz de Medrano|2004|p=134}} Protests against Frederica were held in the United Kingdom, however few were in Greece. Papandreou and his allies used it as an opportunity to claim that the lack of protests in Greece was because the monarchy had restricted [[freedom of speech]], saying that Greece had committed "crimes". Communist [[Betty Bartlett-Ambatielos|Betty Ambatielos]], whose husband had been imprisoned, organised violent demonstrations in London outside the hotel that Frederica was staying in. Frederica is forced to escape with members of the public who support her. The British government sent a "clumsy apology letter" to Paul, further damaging Greco-British relations.{{sfn|Mateos Sáinz de Medrano|2004|p=134}}{{sfn|Dimitrakis|2009|pp=97–98}}

On 22 May 1963, left-wing minister of parliament [[Grigoris Lambrakis]] was hit by a motorcycle in Thessaloniki and was killed. A later investigation discovered that the accident was a political attack and high-ranking government officials, who were closely associated with Paul and the monarchy, had been involved in its organisation. Although Paul's reputation was not as badly affected directly, Karamanlis' party, the [[National Radical Union]], who was the monarchy's greatest supporter, was weakened in the public eye.{{sfn|Woodhouse|1998|pp=284, 289 and 329–330}}{{sfn|Dimitrakis|2009|pp=98–99}} Paul visited London two months later, which resulted in Karamanlis' resignation and Paul's greatest critic, Papandreou, formed government with his party following the [[1964 Greek legislative election]].{{sfn|Woodhouse|1998|pp=284–285}}{{sfn|Dimitrakis|2009|pp=99 and 104}}