Editing Parenting (section)

==Practices==
[[File:Father and child.jpg|thumb|A father and son]]

A parenting practice is a specific behavior that a parent uses in raising a child. These practices are used to socialize children. Kuppens et al. found that "researchers have identified overarching parenting dimensions that reflect similar parenting practices, mostly by modeling the relationships among these parenting practices using factor analytic techniques."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kuppens |first1=Sofie |last2=Ceulemans |first2=Eva |date=2018-09-18 |title=Parenting Styles: A Closer Look at a Well-Known Concept |journal=Journal of Child and Family Studies |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=168–181 |doi=10.1007/s10826-018-1242-x |doi-access=free |pmid=30679898 |pmc=6323136 |issn=1062-1024}}</ref> For example, many parents read aloud to their offspring in the hopes of supporting their linguistic and intellectual development. In cultures with strong oral traditions, such as Indigenous American communities and New Zealand Maori communities, [[Storytelling#storytelling in indigenous cultures|storytelling]] is a critical parenting practice for children.<ref name="inge">{{cite book|last=Bolin|first=Inge|title=Growing Up in a Culture of Respect: Child Rearing in Highland Peru |url=https://archive.org/details/growingupculture00boli|url-access=limited|year=2006|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=978-0-292-71298-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/growingupculture00boli/page/n81 63]–67}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Neha |first1=Tia |last2=Reese |first2=Elaine |last3=Schaughency |first3=Elizabeth |last4=Taumoepeau |first4=Mele |date=August 2020 |title=The role of whānau (New Zealand Māori families) for Māori children's early learning. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/dev0000835 |url-access=subscription |journal=Developmental Psychology |volume=56 |issue=8 |pages=1518–1531 |doi=10.1037/dev0000835 |pmid=32790450 |s2cid=221124818 |issn=1939-0599}}</ref>

Parenting practices reflect the cultural understanding of children.<ref name="Day-Look" /> Parents in individualistic countries like Germany spend more time engaged in [[face-to-face interaction]] with babies and more time talking to the baby about the baby. Parents in more communal cultures, such as West African cultures, spend more time talking to the baby about other people and more time with the baby facing outwards so that the baby sees what the mother sees.<ref name="Day-Look">{{cite news|url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/how_babies_work/2013/04/30/cultural_differences_in_how_you_talk_and_look_at_your_baby.html |title=Cultural differences in how you look and talk at your baby|last=Day|first=Nicholas|date=30 April 2013|work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]|access-date=3 May 2013}}</ref>

===Skills and behaviors===
Parenting skills and behaviors assist parents in leading children into healthy adulthood and development of the child's social skills. The cognitive potential, social skills, and behavioral functioning a child acquires during the early years are positively correlated with the quality of their interactions with their parents.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Olcer|first1=Sevinc|last2=Aytar|first2=Abide Gungor|date=2014-08-25|title=A Comparative Study into Social Skills of Five-six Year Old Children and Parental Behaviors|journal=Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences|language=en|volume=141|pages=976–995|doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.05.167|doi-access=free}}</ref>

According to the Canadian Council on Learning, children benefit (or avoid poor developmental outcomes) when their parents:
# Communicate truthfully about events: Authenticity from parents who explain can help their children understand what happened and how they are involved;
# Maintain consistency: Parents that regularly institute routines can see benefits in their children's behavioral patterns;
# Utilize resources available to them, reaching out into the community and building a [[It takes a village|supportive social network]];
# Take an interest in their child's educational and early developmental needs (e.g., [[Play (activity)|Play]] that enhances socialization, autonomy, cohesion, calmness, and trust.); and
# Keep open communication lines about what their child is seeing, learning, and doing, and how those things are affecting them.<ref>{{Citation |last=Maccoby |first=Eleanor E. |title=The role of parents in the socialization of children: An historical overview. |date=1994 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/10155-021 |url-access=subscription |work=A century of developmental psychology |pages=589–615 |place=Washington |publisher=American Psychological Association |doi=10.1037/10155-021 |isbn=1-55798-233-3 |access-date=2022-03-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schuck |first1=Rachel K. |last2=Lambert |first2=Rachel |date=2020-11-05 |title="Am I Doing Enough?" Special Educators' Experiences with Emergency Remote Teaching in Spring 2020 |journal=Education Sciences |publisher=MDPI |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=320 |doi=10.3390/educsci10110320 |issn=2227-7102|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Parenting skills are widely thought to be naturally present in parents; however, there is substantial evidence to the contrary. Those who come from a negative or vulnerable childhood environment frequently (and often unintentionally) mimic their parents' behavior during interactions with their own children. Parents with an inadequate understanding of developmental milestones may also demonstrate problematic parenting. Parenting practices are of particular importance during marital transitions like separation, divorce, and remarriage;<ref>Patterson et al. (1992){{Full citation needed|date=August 2022}}</ref> if children fail to adequately adjust to these changes, they are at risk of negative outcomes (e.g. increased rule-breaking behavior, problems with peer relationships, and increased emotional difficulties).<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle
|1={{cite journal |last1=Chase-Lansdale |first1=P.L. |last2=Cherlin |first2=A.J. |last3=Kiernan |first3=K.E. |year=1995 |title=The Long-Term Effects of Parental Divorce on the Mental Health of Young Adults: A Developmental Perspective |journal=Child Development |volume=66 |issue=6 |pages=1614–1634 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00955.x|pmid=8556889 }}
|2=Hetherington, 1992{{Full citation needed|date=August 2022}}
|3=Zill, N., Morrison, D. R., & Coiro, M. J. (1993). Long-term effects of parental divorce on parent-child relationships, adjustment, and achievement in young adulthood. Journal of Family Psychology, 7(1), 91–103. {{doi|10.1037/0893-3200.7.1.91}}
|4=Bumpass, L., Sweet, J., & Martin, T. C. (1990). Changing Patterns of Remarriage. Journal of Marriage and Family, 52(3), 747–756. {{doi|10.2307/352939}} {{JSTOR|352939}}
|5=Hetherington, E. M., Bridges, M., & Insabella, G. M. (1998). What matters? What does not? Five perspectives on the association between marital transitions and children's adjustment. American Psychologist, 53(2), 167–184. {{doi|10.1037/0003-066X.53.2.167}}
}}</ref>

Research classifies competence and skills required in parenting as follows:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sanders |first1=Matthew R. |title=Triple P-Positive Parenting Program as a public health approach to strengthening parenting |journal=Journal of Family Psychology |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=506–17 |year=2008 |pmid=18729665 |doi=10.1037/0893-3200.22.3.506 |citeseerx=10.1.1.1012.8778 |s2cid=23720716 }}</ref>
* Parent-child relationship skills: quality time spent, positive communications, and delighted show of affection.
* Encouraging desirable behavior: praise and encouragement, nonverbal attention, facilitating engaging activities.
* Teaching skills and behaviors: being a good example, [[Learning#Incidental learning|incidental teaching]], human communication of the skill with role-playing and other methods, communicating logical incentives and consequences.
* Managing misbehavior: establishing firm ground rules and limits, directing discussion, providing clear and calm instructions, communicating and enforcing appropriate consequences, using restrictive tactics like quiet time and time out with an authoritative stance rather than an authoritarian one.
* Anticipating and planning: advanced planning and preparation for readying the child for challenges, finding out engaging and age-appropriate developmental activities, preparing the token economy for self-management practice with guidance, holding follow-up discussions, identifying possible negative developmental trajectories.
* Self-regulation skills: monitoring behaviors (own and children's),<ref>Common Sense Parenting, Burke, 1997, p. 83</ref> setting developmentally appropriate goals, evaluating strengths and weaknesses and setting practice tasks, monitoring and preventing internalizing and externalizing behaviors.
* Mood and coping skills: reframing and discouraging unhelpful thoughts (diversions, goal orientation, and [[mindfulness]]), stress and tension management ([[Parenting stress|own]] and [[Stress in early childhood|children's]]), developing personal coping statements and plans for high-risk situations, building mutual respect and consideration between members of the family through collaborative activities and rituals.
* Partner support skills: improving personal communication, giving and receiving constructive feedback and support, avoiding [[triangulation (psychology)|negative]] family interaction styles, supporting and finding [[Hope#In psychology|hope]] in problems for adaptation, leading collaborative problem solving, promoting relationship happiness and cordiality.

Consistency is considered the "backbone" of positive parenting skills and "overprotection" the weakness.<ref>Better Home Discipline, Cutts, 1952, p. 7</ref>

The Arbinger Institute adds to these skills and methods of parenting with what the authors of The Parenting Pyramid claims are methods to "parent for things to go right," or in other words steps that should be taken to ensure good positive relationships are occurring in the home which can help children be more willing to listen. Their methods are described as The Parenting Pyramid. The Parenting Pyramid starting at the foundational level and working up to the top:

# Ways of being
# Relationship with spouse
# Relationship with child
# Teaching
# and finally, Corrections<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Parenting Pyramid |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/2603513-the-parenting-pyramid |access-date=2024-03-20 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}</ref>

Believing that as parents are focused on this order of establishing their homes and parenting styles, then if a parent has to encourage different behaviors from children this correction will come from a better place and therefore the children may be more receptive to such feedback, compared to if a parent attempts to correct behaviors before focusing on the previous steps.

=== Parent training ===
Parent psychosocial health can have a significant impact on the parent-child relationship. Group-based [[Parent education program|parent training and education programs]] have proven to be effective at improving short-term psychosocial well-being for parents. There are many different types of training parents can take to support their parenting skills. Some groups include Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT), Parents Management Training (PMT), Positive Parenting Program (Triple P), The Incredible Years, and Behavioral and Emotional Skills Training (BEST).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Choosing a Parent Training Program |url=https://childmind.org/article/choosing-a-parent-training-program/ |access-date=2022-07-07 |website=Child Mind Institute |language=en-us}}</ref> PCIT works with both parents and children in teaching skills to interact more positively and productive. PMT is focused for children aged 3–13, in which parents are the main trainee. They are taught skills to help deal with challenging behaviors from their children. Triple P focus on equipping parents with the information they need to increase confidence and self-sufficiency in managing their children's behavior. The Incredible Years focuses in age infancy-age 12, in which they are broken into small-group-based training in different areas. BEST introduces effective behavior management techniques in one day rather than over the course of a few weeks. Courses are offered to families based on effective training to support additional needs, behavioral guidelines, communication and many others to give guidance throughout learning how to be a parent.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barlow|first1=Jane |last2=Smailagic |first2=Nadja |last3=Huband|first3=Nick|last4=Roloff|first4=Verena|last5=Bennett|first5=Cathy|date=2014-05-17|title=Group-based parent training programmes for improving parental psychosocial health |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2014 |issue=5 |pages=CD002020 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002020.pub4 |issn=1469-493X|pmid=24838729|pmc=10898322 |url=https://www.drugsandalcohol.ie/18691/1/Campbell_Barlow_Parental_Psychosocial_Health_Review.pdf}}</ref>

In research on parenting, [[Jay Belsky]]'s process of parenting model is widely used to assess how a parent's well-being such as their work and social life impacts parenting in early childhood. Belsky's model has been used to show how children, parents, and extended families can thrive. The model has been associated with how social support can affect parenting.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Taraban |first1=Lindsay |last2=Shaw |first2=Daniel S. |date=2018-06-01 |title=Parenting in context: Revisiting Belsky's classic process of parenting model in early childhood |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S027322971730031X |journal=Developmental Review |volume=48 |pages=55–81 |doi=10.1016/j.dr.2018.03.006 |issn=0273-2297}}</ref> Research has also found how the parents' cognitions can affect how a child is raised and how supportive a parent can be. If a parents' cognitions are more positive, then a child can be raised more supportively which can lead the child to have positive self-perceptions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bornstein |first1=Marc H. |last2=Putnick |first2=Diane L. |last3=Suwalsky |first3=Joan T. D. |date=May 2018 |title=Parenting cognitions → parenting practices → child adjustment? The standard model |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/development-and-psychopathology/article/abs/parenting-cognitions-parenting-practices-child-adjustment-the-standard-model/F04B8091512169060D8DB53516487A2C |journal=Development and Psychopathology |language=en |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=399–416 |doi=10.1017/S0954579417000931 |issn=0954-5794 |pmc=5823787 |pmid=28625208}}</ref>

===Cultural values===
Parents around the world want what they believe is best for their children. However, parents in different cultures have different ideas of what is best.<ref name=Day /> For example, parents in [[hunter–gatherer]] societies or those who survive through [[subsistence agriculture]] are likely to promote practical survival skills from a young age. Many such cultures begin teaching children to use sharp tools, including knives, before their first birthdays.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/how_babies_work/2013/04/09/bad_parenting_ideas_that_are_actually_good_for_some_babies.html|title=Give Your Baby a Machete and Other #BabySlatePitches|last=Day|first=Nicholas|date=9 April 2013|work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]|access-date=19 April 2013}}</ref> In some Indigenous American communities, [[Child work in indigenous American cultures|child work]] provides children the opportunity to absorb cultural values of collaborative participation and [[prosocial behavior]] through [[Observational learning#Indigenous communities of the Americas|observation]] and activity alongside adults.<ref name="inge" /> These communities value respect, participation, and non-interference, the Cherokee principle of respecting autonomy by withholding unsolicited advice.<ref>Robert K. Thomas. 1958. "Cherokee Values and World View" Unpublished MS, University of North Carolina
Available at: http://works.bepress.com/robert_thomas/40 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305132144/http://works.bepress.com/robert_thomas/40/ |date=5 March 2016 }}</ref> Indigenous American parents also try to encourage curiosity in their children via a permissive parenting style that enables them to explore and [[observational learning|learn through observation]] of the world.<ref name="inge" />

Differences in cultural values cause parents to interpret the same behaviors in different ways.<ref name=Day /> For instance, European Americans prize intellectual understanding, especially in a narrow "book learning" sense, and believe that asking questions is a sign of intelligence. Italian parents value social and emotional competence and believe that curiosity demonstrates good interpersonal skills.<ref name="Day" /> Dutch parents, however, value independence, long attention spans, and predictability; in their eyes, asking questions is a negative behavior, signifying a lack of independence.<ref name="Day" />

Even so, parents around the world share specific prosocial behavioral goals for their children. Hispanic parents value respect and emphasize putting family above the individual. Parents in East Asia prize order in the household above all else. In some cases, this gives rise to high levels of psychological control and even manipulation on the part of the head of the household.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Doan|first=Stacey N.|date=May 2017|title=Consequences of 'Tiger' Parenting: A Cross-Cultural Study of Maternal Psychological Control and Children's Cortisol Stress Response |journal=Developmental Science|volume= 20|issue=3|pages=10|doi=10.1111/desc.12404|pmid=27146549|hdl=2027.42/136743|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The [[Kipsigis people]] of Kenya value children who are innovative and wield that intelligence responsibly and helpfully—a behavior they call ''ng/om''.<ref name="Day">{{cite news |url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/how_babies_work/2013/04/10/parental_ethnotheories_and_how_parents_in_america_differ_from_parents_everywhere.html |title=Parental ethnotheories and how parents in America differ from parents everywhere else. |last=Day|first=Nicholas |date=10 April 2013 |work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |access-date=19 April 2013}}</ref> Other cultures, such as in Sweden and Spain, value sociality and happiness as well.<ref name="Day" />

====Indigenous American cultures====
[[File:Baby got Back.jpg|thumb|Baby on back in Lima, Peru]]
It is common for parents in many [[indigenous peoples of the americas|Indigenous American communities]] to use different parenting tools such as storytelling —like myths— ''Consejos'' (Spanish for "advice"), educational teasing, nonverbal communication, and observational learning to teach their children important values and life lessons.

[[Storytelling#Storytelling in indigenous cultures|Storytelling]] is a way for Indigenous American children to learn about their identity, community, and cultural history. Indigenous myths and folklore often personify animals and objects, reaffirming the belief that everything possesses a soul and deserves respect. These stories also help preserve the language and are used to reflect certain values or cultural histories.<ref>{{cite book|last=Archibald|first=Jo-Ann|year=2008|title=Indigenous Storywork: Educating The Heart, Mind, Body and Spirit|location=Vancouver, BC|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1401-0}}{{page needed|date=June 2016}}</ref>

The ''Consejo'' is a [[Narrative#In cultural storytelling|narrative]] form of advice-giving. Rather than directly telling the child what to do in a particular situation, the parent might instead tell a story about a similar situation. The main character in the story is intended to help the child see their decision's implications without directly deciding for them; this teaches the child to be decisive and independent while still providing some guidance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Delgado-Gaitan |first1=Concha |title=Consejos: The Power of Cultural Narratives |journal=Anthropology & Education Quarterly |volume=25 |issue=3 |year=1994 |pages=298–316 |jstor=3195848 |doi=10.1525/aeq.1994.25.3.04x0146p}}</ref>

The playful form of [[Teasing#Teasing in Indigenous American Communities|teasing]] is a parenting method used in some Indigenous American communities to keep children out of danger and guide their behavior. This parenting strategy uses stories, fabrications, or empty threats to guide children in making safe, intelligent decisions. For example, a parent may tell a child that there is a monster that jumps on children's backs if they walk alone at night. This explanation can help keep the child safe because instilling that fear creates greater awareness and lessens the likelihood that they will wander alone into trouble.<ref>Brown, P. (2002). Everyone has to lie in Tzeltal. (pp. 241–75) Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, Mahwah, NJ.</ref>

In Navajo families, a child's development is partly focused on the importance of "respect" for all things. "Respect" consists of recognizing the significance of one's relationship with other things and people in the world. Children largely learn about this concept via [[Nonverbal communication#Children's Learning in Indigenous American Communities|nonverbal communication]] between parents and other family members.<ref name="Source 1996">Source: Chisholm, J.S. (1996). Learning "respect for everything": Navajo images of development. Images of childhood, 167–183.</ref> For example, children are initiated at an early age into the practice of an early morning run under any weather conditions. On this run, the community uses humor and laughter with each other, without directly including the child—who may not wish to get up early and run—to encourage the child to participate and become an active member of the community.<ref name="Source 1996" /> Parents also promote participation in the morning runs by placing their child in the snow and having them stay longer if they protest.<ref name="Source 1996" />[[File:Indians of Santa Clara Pueblo, New Mexico, making pottery, 1916 - NARA - 519165.jpg|thumb|Indians of Santa Clara Pueblo, New Mexico, making pottery, 1916]]

Indigenous American parents often [[Child integration|incorporate children]] into everyday life, including adult activities, allowing the child to [[Observational learning#Indigenous communities of the Americas|learn through observation]]. This practice is known as LOPI, [[Learning by Observing and Pitching In]], where children are integrated into all types of mature daily activities and encouraged to observe and contribute in the community. This inclusion as a parenting tool promotes both community participation and learning.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Paradise|first1=Ruth|last2=Rogoff|first2=Barbara|title=Side by Side: Learning by Observing and Pitching In|journal=Journal of the Society of Psychological Anthropology|pages=102–37}}</ref>

One notable example appears in some Mayan communities: young girls are not permitted around the hearth for an extended period of time, since corn is sacred. Although this is an exception to their cultural preference for incorporating children into activities, including cooking, it is a strong example of observational learning. Mayan girls can only watch their mothers making tortillas for a few minutes at a time, but the sacredness of the activity captures their interest. They will then go and practice their mother's movements on other objects, such as kneading thin pieces of plastic like a tortilla. From this practice, when a girl comes of age, she is able to sit down and make tortillas without having ever received any explicit verbal instruction.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gaskins|first1=Suzanne|last2=Paradise|first2=Ruth|editor1-last=Lancy|editor1-first=David|editor2-last=Bock|editor2-first=John|editor3-last=Gaskins|editor3-first=Suzanne|title=The Anthropology of Learning in Childhood|date=2010|publisher=AltaMira Press|location=United Kingdom|chapter=Learning Through Observation in Daily Life}}</ref>

However, in many cases oppressive circumstances such as forced conversion, land loss, and displacement led to diminishment of traditional Native American parenting techniques.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McKinley |first1=Catherine E. |last2=Lilly |first2=Jennifer |last3=Liddell |first3=Jessica L. |last4=Knipp |first4=Hannah |date=December 2021 |title="I Have to Watch Them Closely": Native American Parenting Practice and Philosophies |journal=Journal of Child and Family Studies |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=2952–2965 |doi=10.1007/s10826-021-02116-w |issn=1062-1024 |pmc=8714024 |pmid=34966218}}</ref>

==== Immigrants in the United States: Ethnic-racial socialization ====
Due to the increasing racial and ethnic diversity in the United States, ethnic-racial socialization research has gained some attention.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Ming-Te|last2=Henry|first2=Daphne A.|last3=Smith|first3=Leann V.|last4=Huguley|first4=James P.|last5=Guo|first5=Jiesi|date=January 2020|title=Parental ethnic-racial socialization practices and children of color's psychosocial and behavioral adjustment: A systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=American Psychologist|language=en|volume=75|issue=1|pages=1–22|doi=10.1037/amp0000464|pmid=31058521|s2cid=145820076|issn=1935-990X}}</ref> Parental ethnic-racial socialization is a way of passing down cultural resources to support children of color's psychosocial wellness.<ref name=":1" /> The goals of ethnic-racial socialization are: to pass on a positive view of one's ethnic group and to help children cope with racism.<ref name=":1" /> Through a meta-analysis of published research on ethnic-racial socialization, ethnic-racial socialization positively affects psychosocial well-being.<ref name=":1" /> This meta-analytic review focuses on research relevant to four indicators of psychosocial skills and how they are influenced by developmental stage, race and ethnicity, research designs, and the differences between parent and child self-reports.<ref name=":1" /> The dimensions of ethnic-racial socialization that are considered when looking for correlations with psychosocial skills are cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust, and egalitarianism.<ref name=":1" />

Ethnic-racial socialization dimensions are defined as follows: cultural socialization is the process of passing down cultural customs, preparation for bias ranges from positive or negative reactions to racism and discrimination, promotion of mistrust conditions synergy when dealing with other races, and egalitarianism puts similarities between races first.<ref name=":1" /> Psychosocial competencies are defined as follows: self-perceptions involve perceived beliefs of academic and social capabilities, interpersonal relationships deal with the quality of relationships, externalizing behaviors deal with observable troublesome behavior, and internalizing behavior deals with emotional intelligence regulation.<ref name=":1" /> The multiple ways these domains and competencies interact show small correlations between ethnic-racial socialization and psychosocial wellness, but this parenting practice needs further research.<ref name=":1" />

This meta-analysis showed that developmental stages affect how children perceived ethnic-racial socialization.<ref name=":1" /> Cultural socialization practices appear to affect children similarly across developmental stages except for preparation for bias and promotion of mistrust which are encouraged for older-aged children.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Richard M.|last2=Grotevant|first2=Harold D.|last3=Hellerstedt|first3=Wendy L.|last4=Gunnar|first4=Megan R.|date=December 2006|title=Cultural socialization in families with internationally adopted children.|journal=Journal of Family Psychology|volume=20|issue=4|pages=571–580|doi=10.1037/0893-3200.20.4.571|pmid=17176191|issn=1939-1293|pmc=2398726}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McHale|first1=Susan M.|last2=Crouter|first2=Ann C.|last3=Kim|first3=Ji-Yeon|last4=Burton|first4=Linda M.|last5=Davis|first5=Kelly D.|last6=Dotterer|first6=Aryn M.|last7=Swanson|first7=Dena P.|date=September 2006|title=Mothers' and Fathers' Racial Socialization in African American Families: Implications for Youth|journal=Child Development|volume=77|issue=5|pages=1387–1402|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00942.x|pmid=16999806|issn=0009-3920|hdl=2027.42/97223|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Bannon|first1=William M.|last2=McKay|first2=Mary M.|last3=Chacko|first3=Anil|last4=Rodriguez|first4=James A.|last5=Cavaleri|first5=Mary|date=January 2009|title=Cultural Pride Reinforcement as a Dimension of Racial Socialization Protective of Urban African American Child Anxiety|journal=Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services|volume=90|issue=1|pages=79–86|doi=10.1606/1044-3894.3848|pmid=20046919|pmc=2749692|issn=1044-3894}}</ref> Existing research shows ethnic-racial socialization serves African Americans positively against discrimination.<ref name=":2" /> Cross-sectional studies were predicted to have greater effect sizes because correlations are inflated in these kinds of studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Huguley|first1=James P.|last2=Wang|first2=Ming-Te|last3=Vasquez|first3=Ariana C.|last4=Guo|first4=Jiesi|date=May 2019|title=Parental ethnic–racial socialization practices and the construction of children of color's ethnic–racial identity: A research synthesis and meta-analysis.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=145|issue=5|pages=437–458|doi=10.1037/bul0000187|pmid=30896188|s2cid=84845230|issn=1939-1455|url=http://d-scholarship.pitt.edu/36219/1/ERS%20and%20Psychosocial%20Adjustment_04022019_InpressinAmerican%20Psychologist.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Priest|first1=Naomi|last2=Walton|first2=Jessica|last3=White|first3=Fiona|last4=Kowal|first4=Emma|last5=Baker|first5=Alison|last6=Paradies|first6=Yin|date=November 2014|title=Understanding the complexities of ethnic-racial socialization processes for both minority and majority groups: A 30-year systematic review|journal=International Journal of Intercultural Relations|volume=43|pages=139–155|doi=10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.08.003|s2cid=143178398 |issn=0147-1767}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Yasui|first=Miwa|date=September 2015|title=A review of the empirical assessment of processes in ethnic–racial socialization: Examining methodological advances and future areas of development|journal=Developmental Review|volume=37|pages=1–40|doi=10.1016/j.dr.2015.03.001|issn=0273-2297}}</ref> Parental reports of ethnic-racial socialization influence are influenced by "intentions", so child reports tend to be more accurate.<ref name=":3" />

Among other conclusions derived from this meta-analysis, cultural socialization and self-perceptions had a small positive correlation. Cultural socialization and promotion of mistrust had a small negative correlation, and interpersonal relationships positively impacted cultural socialization and preparation for bias.<ref name=":1" /> In regard to developmental stages, ethnic-racial socialization had a small but positive correlation with self-perceptions during childhood and early adolescence.<ref name=":1" /> Based on study designs, there were no significant differences, meaning that cross-sectional studies and longitudinal studies both showed small positive correlations between ethnic-racial socialization and self-perceptions.<ref name=":1" /> Reporter differences between parents and children showed positive correlations between ethnic-racial socialization when associated with internalizing behavior and interpersonal relationships.<ref name=":1" /> These two correlations showed a greater effect size with child reports compared to parent reports.<ref name=":1" />

The meta-analysis on previous research shows only correlations, so there is a need for experimental studies that can show causation amongst the different domains and dimensions.<ref name=":1" /> Children's behavior and adaptation to this behavior may indicate a bidirectional effect that can also be addressed by an experimental study.<ref name=":1" /> There is evidence to show that ethnic-racial socialization can help children of color obtain social-emotional skills that can help them navigate through racism and discrimination, but further research needs to be done to increase the generalizability of existing research.<ref name=":1" />