Editing Paranormal (section)

===Psychology===
{{Main|Anomalistic psychology}}

In "anomalistic psychology", paranormal phenomena have naturalistic explanations resulting from [[Psychology|psychological]] and [[Physics|physical]] factors which have sometimes given the impression of paranormal activity to some people, in fact, where there have been none.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Nicola |last1=Holt |first2=Christine |last2=Simmonds-Moore |first3=David |last3=Luke |first4=Christopher C. |last4=French |author4-link=Chris French |year=2012|title=Anomalistic Psychology (Palgrave Insights in Psychology) |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-30150-4}}</ref> The psychologist [[David Marks (psychologist)|David Marks]] wrote that paranormal phenomena can be explained by [[magical thinking]], [[mental image]]ry, [[subjective validation]], [[coincidence]], hidden causes, and fraud.<ref name="Marks 1988"/> According to studies some people tend to hold paranormal beliefs because they possess psychological traits that make them more likely to misattribute paranormal causation to normal experiences.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wiseman |first1=Richard |author-link1=Richard Wiseman|last2=Watt |first2=Caroline |title=Belief in psychic ability and the misattribution hypothesis: A qualitative review |journal=British Journal of Psychology |date=2006 |volume=97 |issue=3 |pages=323–338 |doi=10.1348/000712605X72523 |pmid=16848946 |url=http://www.richardwiseman.com/resources/review.pdf|citeseerx=10.1.1.537.3311 }}</ref><ref name=vanElk2003>{{cite journal |last1=van Elk |first1=Michiel |title=Paranormal believers are more prone to illusory agency detection than skeptics |journal=[[Consciousness and Cognition]] |date=September 2013 |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=1041–1046 |doi=10.1016/j.concog.2013.07.004 |pmid=23933505 |s2cid=32087344 }}</ref> Research has also discovered that [[cognitive bias]] is a factor underlying paranormal belief.<ref>{{cite book|last1=French|first1=C.C.|last2=Wilson|first2=K.|year=2007|contribution=Chapter 1: Cognitive factors underlying paranormal beliefs and experiences|editor1-first=S. Della|editor1-last=Sala|title=Tall Tales About the Mind and Brain: Separating Fact From Fiction|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=3–22|isbn=978-0-19-856877-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Willard |first1=Aiyana K. |last2=Norenzayan |first2=Ara |title=Cognitive biases explain religious belief, paranormal belief, and belief in life's purpose |journal=[[Cognition (journal)|Cognition]] |date=November 2013 |volume=129 |issue=2 |pages=379–391 |doi=10.1016/j.cognition.2013.07.016 |pmid=23974049 |s2cid=18869844 }}</ref> [[File:Chris French World Skeptics Congress Berlin 2012.jpg|thumb|220x220px|left|[[Chris French]], founder of the Anomalistic Psychology Research Unit.]]

Many studies have found a link between [[personality]] and [[psychopathology]] variables correlating with paranormal belief.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Investigating the personality correlates of paranormal belief and precognitive experience |last1=Rattet |first1=Shelley L. |last2=Bursik |first2=Krisanne |date=August 2001 |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=433–444 |doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00148-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wiseman |first1=Richard |last2=Greening |first2=Emma |last3=Smith |first3=Matthew |author-link1=Richard Wiseman|title=Belief in the paranormal and suggestion in the seance room |journal=British Journal of Psychology |date=2003 |volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=285–297 |doi=10.1348/000712603767876235 |pmid=14511544 |url=http://www.richardwiseman.com/resources/seanceBJP.pdf |language=en |issn=2044-8295|citeseerx=10.1.1.528.2693 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Dissociative experiences, trait anxiety and paranormal beliefs |last1=Wolfradt |first1=Uwe |date=July 1997 |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=15–19 |doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(97)00043-3}}</ref> Some studies have also shown that [[Fantasy prone personality|fantasy proneness]] correlates positively with paranormal belief.<ref>{{cite book|first=Harvey J.|last=Irwin|year=2009|title=The Psychology of Paranormal Belief: A Researcher's Handbook|publisher=University Of Hertfordshire Press|page=89|isbn=978-1-902806-93-8}}</ref>

Bainbridge (1978) and Wuthnow (1976) found that the most susceptible people to paranormal belief are those who are poorly educated, [[Unemployment|unemployed]] or have roles that rank low among [[social]] values. The alienation of these people due to their status in [[society]] is said to encourage them to appeal to paranormal or magical beliefs.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bainbridge|first=William Sims|date=Winter 1978|title=Chariots of the gullible|url=https://skepticalinquirer.org/1979/01/chariots-of-the-gullible/|journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]]|volume=3|issue=2|pages=33–48}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Wuthnow |first=Robert |title=Astrology and Marginality |date=June 1976 |volume=15 |issue=2 |journal=[[Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion]] |doi=10.2307/1385359 |pages=157–168|jstor=1385359 }}</ref>

Research has associated paranormal belief with low [[Cognition|cognitive ability]], low [[Intelligence quotient|IQ]] and a lack of [[science education]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Otis |first1=Laura P. |last2=Alcock |first2=James E. |date=1982 |title=Factors affecting extraordinary belief |journal=[[The Journal of Social Psychology]] |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=77–85 |doi=10.1080/00224545.1982.9924420}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Smith |first1=Matthew D. |last2=Foster |first2=Christa L. |last3=Stovin |first3=Gordon |title=Intelligence and paranormal belief: Examining the role of context |date=March 1998 |journal=[[Journal of Parapsychology]] |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=65–77 }}</ref> [[Intelligence|Intelligent]] and highly educated participants involved in surveys have proven to have less paranormal belief.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Blum |first1=Stuart H. |last2=Blum |first2=Lucille H. |title=Do's and Dont's: An Informal Study of some Prevailing Superstitions |journal=[[Psychological Reports]] |date=1974-08-01 |doi=10.2466/pr0.1974.35.1.567 |volume=35 |issue=1, Pt 2 |pages=567–571|s2cid=144097942 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Jahoda |first=Gustav |title=Supernatural Beliefs and Changing Cognitive Structures among Ghanaian University Students |date=June 1970 |journal=[[Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology]] |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=115–130 |doi=10.1177/002202217000100202|s2cid=145138079 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Killen |first1=Pat |last2=Wildman |first2=Robert W. |last3=Wildman |first3=Robert W. II |title=Superstitiousness and Intelligence |journal=Psychological Reports |date=1974-06-01 |doi=10.2466/pr0.1974.34.3c.1158 |volume=34 |issue=3, Pt 2 |pages=1158|s2cid=145559260 }}</ref> Tobacyk (1984) and Messer and Griggs (1989) discovered that college students with better [[Grading in education|grades]] have less belief in the paranormal.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tobacyk |first1=Jerome |title=Paranormal Belief and College Grade Point Average |journal=Psychological Reports |date=1984-02-01 |doi=10.2466/pr0.1984.54.1.217 |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=217–8|s2cid=147487003 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Student belief and involvement in the paranormal and performance in introductory psychology |journal=[[Teaching of Psychology]] |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=187–191 |last1=Messer |first1=Wayne S. |last2=Griggs |first2=Richard A. |date=1 December 1989 |doi=10.1207/s15328023top1604_4|s2cid=145512239 }}</ref>

In a case study (Gow, 2004) involving 167 participants the findings revealed that psychological [[Absorption (psychology)|absorption]] and [[Dissociation (psychology)|dissociation]] were higher for believers in the paranormal.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Fantasy proneness, paranormal beliefs and personality features in out-of-body experiences |journal=Contemporary Hypnosis |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=107–125 |last1=Gow |first1=Kathryn M. |last2=Lang |first2=Tracey |last3=Chant |first3=David |date=2004 |doi=10.1002/ch.296}}</ref> Another study involving 100 students had revealed a positive correlation between paranormal belief and proneness to dissociation.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Irwin |first1=Harvey J. |title=Paranormal Belief and Proneness to Dissociation |journal=Psychological Reports |date=1994-12-01 |doi=10.2466/pr0.1994.75.3.1344 |pmid=7892403 |volume=75 |issue=3, Pt 1 |pages=1344–46|s2cid=37685766 }}</ref> A study (Williams ''et al''. 2007) discovered that "[[neuroticism]] is fundamental to individual differences in paranormal belief, while paranormal belief is independent of extraversion and [[psychoticism]]".<ref>{{cite journal|title=Personality and paranormal belief: a study among adolescents |journal=Pastoral Psychology |last1=Williams |first1=Emyr |last2=Francis |first2=Leslie J. |last3=Robbins |first3=Mandy |date=15 August 2007 |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=9–14 |doi=10.1007/s11089-007-0094-x|s2cid=31448730 |url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/2942/1/WRAP_Williams_0675009-ie-160310-personality_and_paranormal.pdf }}</ref> A correlation has been found between paranormal belief and [[Irrationality|irrational thinking]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tobacyk |first1=Jerome |last2=Milford |first2=Gary |title=Belief in paranormal phenomena: Assessment instrument development and implications for personality functioning |date=1983 |journal=[[Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]] |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=1029–1037 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.44.5.1029}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Belief in the paranormal and its association with irrational thinking controlled for context effects |last1=Roig |first1=Miguel |last2=Bridges |first2=K. Robert |last3=Renner |first3=Catherine H. |last4=Jackson |first4=Cheryl R. |date=February 1998 |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=229–236 |doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(97)00162-1}}</ref>

In an experiment Wierzbicki (1985) reported a significant correlation between paranormal belief and the number of errors made on a [[Syllogism|syllogistic reasoning]] task, suggesting that believers in the paranormal have lower [[Cognition|cognitive ability]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wierzbicki |first=Michael |date=1985 |title=Reasoning errors and belief in the paranormal |journal=[[The Journal of Social Psychology]] |volume=125 |issue=4 |pages=489–494 |doi=10.1080/00224545.1985.9713529}}</ref> A relationship between [[Narcissism|narcissistic personality]] and paranormal belief was discovered in a study involving the [[Australian Sheep-Goat Scale]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Roe |first1=Chris A. |last2=Morgan |first2=Claire L. |title=Narcissism and Belief in the Paranormal |journal=Psychological Reports |date=2002-04-01 |doi=10.2466/pr0.2002.90.2.405 |pmid=12061576 |volume=90 |issue=2 |pages=405–411|s2cid=36206016 }}</ref>

De Boer and Bierman wrote:

{{cquote|In his article 'Creative or Defective' Radin (2005) asserts that many academics explain the belief in the paranormal by using one of the three following hypotheses: Ignorance, deprivation or deficiency. 'The ignorance hypothesis asserts that people believe in the paranormal because they're uneducated or stupid. The deprivation hypothesis proposes that these beliefs exist to provide a way to cope in the face of psychological uncertainties and physical stressors. The deficiency hypothesis asserts that such beliefs arise because people are mentally defective in some way, ranging from low intelligence or poor critical thinking ability to a full-blown psychosis' (Radin). The deficiency hypothesis gets some support from the fact that the belief in the paranormal is an aspect of a schizotypical personality (Pizzagalli, Lehman and Brugger, 2001).<ref>{{cite journal|title=The roots of paranormal belief: Divergent associations or real paranormal experiences? |journal=Proceedings of the 49th Annual Convention of the Parapsychological Association |pages=283–298 |first1=Rémi |last1=de Boer |first2=Dick J. |last2=Bierman |date=January 2006 |url=https://parapsych.org/uploaded_files/pdfs/00/00/00/00/75/2006_proceedings.pdf}}</ref>|R. de Boer and D.J. Bierman|The roots of paranormal belief: Divergent associations or real paranormal experiences?}}

A psychological study involving 174 members of the [[Society for Psychical Research]] completed a delusional ideation questionnaire and a [[deductive reasoning]] task. As predicted, the study showed that "individuals who reported a strong belief in the paranormal made more errors and displayed more delusional [[Ideation (idea generation)|ideation]] than skeptical individuals". There was also a reasoning bias which was limited to people who reported a belief in, rather than experience of, paranormal phenomena. The results suggested that reasoning abnormalities may have a causal role in the formation of paranormal belief.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lawrence |first1=Emma |last2=Peters |first2=Emmanuelle R. |title=Reasoning in believers in the paranormal |date=November 2004 |journal=[[The Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease]] |volume=192 |issue=11 |pages=727–733 |doi=10.1097/01.nmd.0000144691.22135.d0 |pmid=15505516|s2cid=22487053 }}</ref>

Research has shown that people reporting contact with [[Grey alien|aliens]] have higher levels of absorption, dissociativity, fantasy proneness and tendency to [[Hallucination|hallucinate]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=French |first1=C.C. |last2=Santomauro |first2=Julia |last3=Hamilton |first3=Victoria |last4=Fox |first4=Rachel |last5=Thalbourne |first5=M.A. |title=Psychological aspects of the alien contact experience |date=November 2008 |journal=[[Cortex (journal)|Cortex]] |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=1387–1395 |doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2007.11.011 |pmid=18635162 |s2cid=6174823 |url=https://research.gold.ac.uk/4223/2/French%252Bet%252Bal%252BAliens%252Bwith%252BEffect%252BSizes%252Baccept%E2%80%A6.pdf |access-date=26 September 2020 |archive-date=26 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926162115/http://research.gold.ac.uk/4223/2/French%2Bet%2Bal%2BAliens%2Bwith%2BEffect%2BSizes%2Baccept%E2%80%A6.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Findings have shown in specific cases that paranormal belief acts as a psychodynamic coping function and serves as a mechanism for coping with [[Stress (psychological)|stress]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Perkins |first1=Stefanie L. |last2=Allen |first2=Rhiannon |title=Childhood Physical Abuse and Differential Development of Paranormal Belief Systems |date=May 2006 |journal=[[The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease]] |volume=194 |issue=5 |pages=349–355 |doi=10.1097/01.nmd.0000217832.85665.c5 |pmid=16699384|s2cid=21530392 }}</ref> Survivors from [[childhood sexual abuse]], violent and unsettled home environments have reported to have higher levels of paranormal belief.<ref>French, C.C., & Kerman, M.K. (1996). "Childhood trauma, fantasy proneness and belief in the paranormal". Paper presented to the 1996 London Conference of the British Psychological Society, Institute of Education, University of London, 17–18 December 1996.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Modelling childhood causes of paranormal belief and experience: Childhood trauma and childhood fantasy |last1=Lawrence |first1=Tony |last2=Edwards |first2=Claire |last3=Barraclough |first3=Nicholas |last4=Church |first4=Sarah |last5=Hetherington |first5=Francesca |date=August 1995 |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=209–215 |doi=10.1016/0191-8869(95)00034-4}}</ref> A study of a random sample of 502 adults revealed paranormal experiences were common in the population which were linked to a history of [[childhood trauma]] and dissociative symptoms.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ross |first1=Christopher A. |last2=Joshi |first2=Smita |title=Paranormal Experiences in the General Population |date=June 1992 |journal=[[The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease]] |volume=180 |issue=6 |pages=357–361 |doi=10.1097/00005053-199206000-00004 |pmid=1593270|s2cid=21459764 }}</ref> Research has also suggested that people who perceive themselves as having little control over their lives may develop paranormal beliefs to help provide an enhanced sense of control.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Blackmore |first1=S. J. |author-link1=Susan Blackmore|last2=Trościanko |first2=T. |author-link2=Tom Troscianko |title=Belief in the paranormal: probability judgements, illusory control and the 'chance baseline shift' |journal=British Journal of Psychology |date=November 1985 |volume=76 |issue= 4|pages=459–468 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1985.tb01969.x}}</ref> The similarities between paranormal events and descriptions of trauma have also been noted.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Poilvez |first=Marion |date=2020 |title=A Troll Did It?: Trauma as a Paranormal State in the Íslendingasögur |url=https://www.academia.edu/42776814 |journal=Paranormal Encounters in Iceland 1150–1400 |pages=71–88|doi=10.1515/9781501513862-006 |isbn=978-1-5015-1386-2 }}</ref>

Gender differences in surveys on paranormal belief have reported women scoring higher than men overall and men having greater belief in [[Unidentified flying object|UFOs]] and extraterrestrials.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Clarke |first=Dave |title=Belief in the paranormal: a New Zealand survey |date=1991 |journal=[[Society for Psychical Research#Journal of the Society for Psychical Research|Journal of the Society for Psychical Research]] |volume=57 |issue=823 |pages=412–425 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Rice |first=Tom W. |title=Believe It Or Not: Religious and Other Paranormal Beliefs in the United States |date=March 2003 |volume=42 |issue=1 |journal=[[Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion]] |doi=10.1111/1468-5906.00163 |pages=95–106}}</ref> Surveys have also investigated the relationship between [[Ethnic group|ethnicity]] and paranormal belief. In a sample of American university students (Tobacyk ''et al''. 1988) it was found that [[Black people|people of African descent]] have a higher level of belief in [[superstition]]s and [[witchcraft]] while belief in extraterrestrial life forms was stronger among [[White people|people of European descent]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tobacyk |first1=Jerome |last2=Nagot |first2=Ed |last3=Miller |first3=Mark |title=Paranormal Beliefs and Locus of Control: A Multidimensional Examination |date=June 1988 |journal=[[Journal of Personality Assessment]] |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=241–246 |doi=10.1207/s15327752jpa5202_5}}</ref> Otis and Kuo (1984) surveyed Singapore university students and found [[Han Chinese|Chinese]], [[Indian people|Indian]] and [[Ethnic Malays|Malay]] students to differ in their paranormal beliefs, with the Chinese students showing greater skepticism.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Otis |first1=Laura P. |last2=Kuo |first2=Eddie C. |title=Extraordinary beliefs among students in Singapore and Canada |date=1984 |journal=[[The Journal of Psychology]] |volume=116 |issue=2 |pages=215–226 |doi=10.1080/00223980.1984.9923639}}</ref>

According to American surveys analysed by Bader ''et al''. (2011) [[African American]]s have the highest belief in the paranormal and while the findings are not uniform the "general trend is for whites to show lesser belief in most paranormal subjects".<ref>{{cite book|first1=Christopher D.|last1=Bader|first2=F. Carson|last2=Mencken|first3=Joseph|last3=Baker|year=2011|title=Paranormal America: Ghost Encounters, UFO Sightings, Bigfoot Hunts, and Other Curiosities in Religion and Culture|publisher=NYU Press|pages=57–58|isbn=978-0-8147-9135-6}}</ref>

Polls show that about fifty percent of the United States population believe in the paranormal. [[Robert L. Park]] says a lot of people believe in it because they "want it to be so".<ref name=Ghang>{{cite news|last=Chang|first=Kenneth|title=Do Paranormal Phenomena exist?|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/11/11/science/do-paranormal-phenomena-exist.html|work=The New York Times |date=11 November 2003 |access-date=4 October 2013}}</ref>

A 2013 study that utilized a biological motion perception task discovered a "relation between illusory pattern perception and supernatural and paranormal beliefs and suggest that paranormal beliefs are strongly related to agency detection biases".<ref name=vanElk2003 />

A 2014 study discovered that [[Schizophrenia|schizophrenic]] patients have more belief in [[Psi (parapsychology)|psi]] than healthy adults.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shiah |first1=Y.J. |last2=Wu |first2=Y.Z. |last3=Chen |first3=Y.H. |last4=Chiang |first4=S.K. |title=Schizophrenia and the paranormal: More psi belief and superstition, and less déjà vu in medicated schizophrenic patients |date=April 2014 |journal=[[Comprehensive Psychiatry]] |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=688–692 |doi=10.1016/j.comppsych.2013.11.003 |pmid=24355706}}</ref>