Editing Ottoman Empire (section)

==== World War I ====
{{Main|Ottoman entry into World War I|Ottoman Empire in World War I}}
[[File:M 113 5 amiral Souchon et ses officiers.jpg|thumb|Admiral [[Wilhelm Souchon]], who commanded the [[Black Sea raid]] on 29 October 1914, and his officers in Ottoman naval uniforms]]

The Ottoman Empire entered [[World War I]] on the side of the [[Central Powers]] and was ultimately defeated.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Findley |first=Carter Vaughn |title=Turkey, Islam, Nationalism and Modernity: A History, 1789–2007 |date=2010 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-15260-9 |location=New Haven |page=200}}</ref> The Ottoman participation in the war began with the combined [[Black Sea Raid|German-Ottoman surprise attack]] on the [[Black Sea]] coast of the [[Russian Empire]] on 29 October 1914. Following the attack, the Russian Empire (2 November 1914)<ref name="oxfordreference-timeline">{{Cite book |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191737640.timeline.0001 |title=Timeline: Ottoman Empire (c. 1285 – 1923) |date=2012 |publisher=[[Oxford Reference]] |isbn=978-0-19-173764-0 |access-date=7 June 2021 |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514171439/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191737640.timeline.0001 |url-status=live }}</ref> and its allies [[French Third Republic|France]] (5 November 1914)<ref name="oxfordreference-timeline"/> and the [[British Empire]] (5 November 1914)<ref name="oxfordreference-timeline"/> declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Also on 5 November 1914, the British government changed the status of the [[Khedivate of Egypt]] and [[Cyprus Convention|Cyprus]], which were [[de jure]] Ottoman territories prior to the war, to [[British protectorate]]s.

The Ottomans successfully defended the [[Dardanelles]] strait during the [[Gallipoli campaign]] (1915–1916) and achieved initial victories against British forces in the first two years of the [[Mesopotamian campaign]], such as the [[Siege of Kut]] (1915–1916); but the [[Arab Revolt]] (1916–1918) turned the tide against the Ottomans in the Middle East. In the [[Caucasus campaign]], however, the Russian forces had the upper hand from the beginning, especially after the [[Battle of Sarikamish]] (1914–1915). Russian forces advanced into northeastern [[Anatolia]] and controlled the major cities there until retreating from World War I with the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] following the [[Russian Revolution]] in 1917.

===== Genocides =====
{{Main|Late Ottoman genocides|Armenian genocide|Greek genocide|Seyfo}}
[[File:Column of deportees walking through Harput vilayet during the Armenian genocide.jpg|thumb|The [[Armenian genocide]] was the result of the Ottoman government's [[Temporary Law of Deportation|deportation]] and [[ethnic cleansing]] policies regarding its [[Armenians in the Ottoman Empire|Armenian]] citizens after the [[Battle of Sarikamish]] (1914–1915) and the collapse of the [[Caucasus campaign|Caucasus Front]] against the [[Imperial Russian Army]] and [[Armenian volunteer units]] during [[World War I]]. An estimated 600,000<ref name="britannica-ag">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Armenian Genocide|access-date=28 January 2023|archive-date=1 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101025841/https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide|url-status=live}}</ref> to more than 1 million,<ref name="britannica-ag"/> or up to 1.5 million<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html|title=Fact Sheet: Armenian Genocide|publisher=University of Michigan|access-date=15 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818233348/http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html|archive-date=18 August 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Freedman|first=Jeri|title=The Armenian genocide|year=2009|publisher=Rosen Pub. Group|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4042-1825-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC|edition=1st|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151655/https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Totten, Samuel, Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs (eds.) ''Dictionary of Genocide''. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 19. {{ISBN|0-313-34642-9}}.</ref> people were killed.]]

In 1915 the Ottoman government and Kurdish tribes in the region started the extermination of its ethnic Armenian population, resulting in the deaths of up to 1.5{{nbsp}}million Armenians in the [[Armenian genocide]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bijak |first1=Jakub |title=The Armenian Genocide Legacy |last2=Lubman |first2=Sarah |date=2016 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-137-56163-3 |page=39 |language=en |chapter=The Disputed Numbers: In Search of the Demographic Basis for Studies of Armenian Population Losses, 1915–1923}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Peter Balakian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DrYoyAM3PBYC&pg=PR17 |title=The Burning Tigris |publisher=HarperCollins |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-06-186017-1 |page=xvii |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151656/https://books.google.com/books?id=DrYoyAM3PBYC&pg=PR17 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Quataert |first=Donald |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922 |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition) |page=186}}; {{Cite journal |last1=Schaller |first1=Dominik J |last2=Zimmerer |first2=Jürgen |date=2008 |title=Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.1080/14623520801950820 |s2cid=71515470}}</ref> The genocide was carried out during and after World War I and implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly and infirm on [[death march]]es leading to the [[Syrian desert]]. Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, [[Rape during the Armenian Genocide|rape]], and systematic massacre.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Christopher J. |title=Armenia: The Survival of A Nation |pages=200–203 |date=1980 |place=London |publisher=Croom Helm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bryce |first1=Viscount James |title=The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1915–1916: Documents Presented to Viscount Grey of Falloden |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H0mfmdThGLAC&pg=PA636 |pages=635–649 |date=2000 |editor-last=Sarafian |editor-first=Ara |edition=uncensored |place=Princeton |publisher=[[Gomidas Institute]] |isbn=978-0-9535191-5-6 |last2=Toynbee |first2=Arnold |author-link=James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce}}</ref> Large-scale massacres were also committed against the Empire's [[Greek genocide|Greek]] and [[Assyrian genocide|Assyrian]] minorities as part of the same campaign of ethnic cleansing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schaller |first1=Dominik J |last2=Zimmerer |first2=Jürgen |date=2008 |title=Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies&nbsp;– introduction |url=http://bridging-the-divide.org/sites/default/files/files/Late%20Ottoman%20genocides-%20the%20dissolution%20of%20the%20Ottoman%20Empire%20and%20Young%20Turkish%20population%20and%20extermination%20policies%281%29.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.1080/14623520801950820 |via=Bridging the Divide |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103172211/http://bridging-the-divide.org/sites/default/files/files/Late%20Ottoman%20genocides-%20the%20dissolution%20of%20the%20Ottoman%20Empire%20and%20Young%20Turkish%20population%20and%20extermination%20policies%281%29.pdf |archive-date=3 November 2013 |quote=The genocidal quality of the murderous campaigns against Greeks and Assyrians is obvious |s2cid=71515470 |accessdate=6 June 2013 }}</ref>

===== Arab Revolt =====
{{Main|Middle Eastern theatre of World War I|Arab Revolt}}

The [[Arab Revolt]] began in 1916 with British support. It turned the tide against the Ottomans on the Middle Eastern front, where they seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. On the basis of the [[McMahon–Hussein Correspondence]], an agreement between the British government and [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca]], the revolt was officially initiated at Mecca on 10 June 1916.{{efn|Though the revolt was officially initiated on 10 June, bin Ali's sons [[Ali of Hejaz|'Ali]] and [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] had already initiated operations at Medina starting on 5 June.<ref>Eliezer Tauber, ''The Arab Movements in World War I,'' Routledge, 2014 {{ISBN|978-1-135-19978-4}} p. 80-81</ref>}} The Arab nationalist goal was to create a single unified and independent [[Arab state]] stretching from [[Aleppo]], Syria, to [[Aden]], Yemen, which the British promised to recognise.

The [[Sharifian Army]], led by Hussein and the [[Hashemites]], with military backing from the British [[Egyptian Expeditionary Force]], successfully fought and expelled the Ottoman military presence from much of the [[Hejaz]] and [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]]. The rebellion eventually took [[Damascus]] and set up a short-lived monarchy led by [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]], a son of Hussein.

Following the terms of the 1916 [[Sykes–Picot Agreement]], the British and French later partitioned the Middle East into [[League of Nations mandate|mandate territories]]. There was no unified Arab state, much to Arab nationalists' anger. Palestine, Iraq, Lebanon and Syria became British and French mandates.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sykes-Picot Agreement {{!}} Map, History, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Sykes-Picot-Agreement |access-date=22 May 2024 |website=Britannica |language=en |archive-date=22 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522080149/https://www.britannica.com/event/Sykes-Picot-Agreement |url-status=live }}</ref>

===== Treaty of Sèvres and Turkish War of Independence =====
[[File:Sultanvahideddin.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mehmed VI]], the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, leaving the country after the abolition of the Ottoman sultanate, 17 November 1922]]

Defeated in World War I, the Ottoman Empire signed the [[Armistice of Mudros]] on 30 October 1918. [[Occupation of Istanbul|Istanbul was occupied]] by combined British, French, Italian, and Greek forces. In May 1919, Greece also [[Occupation of Smyrna|took control of the area around Smyrna]] (now İzmir).

The [[partition of the Ottoman Empire]] was finalized under the terms of the 1920 [[Treaty of Sèvres]]. This treaty, as designed in the [[Conference of London (1920)|Conference of London]], allowed the Sultan to retain his position and title. Anatolia's status was problematic given the occupied forces.

A nationalist opposition arose in the [[Turkish national movement]]. It won the [[Turkish War of Independence]] (1919–1923) under the leadership of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]] (later given the surname "Atatürk"). The sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, [[Mehmed VI]] (reigned 1918–1922), left the country on 17 November 1922. The [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] was [[History of Turkey#Republic of Turkey|established]] in its place on 29 October 1923, in the new capital city of [[Ankara]]. The [[Ottoman Caliphate|caliphate]] was abolished on 3 March 1924.<ref name="Ozoglu">{{Cite book |last=Hakan Özoğlu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cw5V1c1ej_cC&pg=PA8 |title=From Caliphate to Secular State: Power Struggle in the Early Turkish Republic |publisher=ABC-CLIO |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-313-37957-4 |page=8 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151656/https://books.google.com/books?id=Cw5V1c1ej_cC&pg=PA8 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Howard |first=Douglas A. |title=A History of the Ottoman Empire |date=2016b |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-10747-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=e57eDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA318 318]}}</ref>