Editing Neoliberalism (section)

==== Peru ====
{{Further|Plan Verde}}
Peruvian economist [[Hernando de Soto (economist)|Hernando de Soto]], the founder of one of the first neoliberal organizations in Latin America, [[Institute for Liberty and Democracy]] (ILD), began to receive assistance from [[Ronald Reagan]]'s administration, with the [[National Endowment for Democracy]]'s Center for International Private Enterprise (CIPE) providing his ILD with funding.<ref name="Pee-2018a">{{Cite book |last=Pee |first=Robert |title=The Reagan Administration, the Cold War, and the Transition to Democracy Promotion |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-3319963815 |pages=178–180}}</ref><ref name="Pee-2018">{{Cite book |last=Pee |first=Robert |title=The Reagan Administration, the Cold War, and the Transition to Democracy Promotion |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-3319963815 |pages=168–187}}</ref><ref name="Mitchell-2005">{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Timothy |date=2005 |title=The work of economics: how a discipline makes its world |journal=[[European Journal of Sociology]] |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=299–310 |doi=10.1017/S000397560500010X |doi-access=free}}</ref> The economic policy of [[President of Peru|President]] [[Alan García]] distanced Peru from international markets, resulting in lower foreign investment in the country.<ref name="CHA-2010">{{Cite web |date=June 2, 2010 |title=Welcome, Mr. Peruvian President: Why Alan García is no hero to his people |url=http://www.coha.org/welcome-mr-peruvian-president-why-alan-garcia-is-no-hero-to-his-people/ |access-date=April 18, 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418150551/http://www.coha.org/welcome-mr-peruvian-president-why-alan-garcia-is-no-hero-to-his-people/ |archive-date=April 18, 2019 |website=[[Council on Hemispheric Affairs]]}}</ref> Under García, Peru experienced [[hyperinflation]] and increased confrontations with the guerrilla group [[Shining Path]], leading the country towards high levels of instability.<ref name="Burt-1998">{{Cite journal |last=Burt |first=Jo-Marie |date=September–October 1998 |title=Unsettled accounts: militarization and memory in postwar Peru |journal=[[NACLA|NACLA Report on the Americas]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=35–41 |doi=10.1080/10714839.1998.11725657 |quote=the military's growing frustration over the limitations placed upon its counterinsurgency operations by democratic institutions, coupled with the growing inability of civilian politicians to deal with the spiraling economic crisis and the expansion of the Shining Path, prompted a group of military officers to devise a coup plan in the late 1980s. The plan called for the dissolution of Peru's civilian government, military control over the state, and total elimination of armed opposition groups. The plan, developed in a series of documents known as the "Plan Verde," outlined a strategy for carrying out a military coup in which the armed forces would govern for 15 to 20 years and radically restructure state-society relations along neoliberal lines.}}</ref> The Peruvian armed forces grew frustrated with the inability of the García administration to handle the nation's crises and began to draft an operation – [[Plan Verde]] – to overthrow his government.<ref name="Burt-1998" />

The military's Plan Verde involved the "[[Genocide|total extermination]]" of impoverished and indigenous Peruvians perceived as a drain on the economy, the control or [[censorship]] of media in the nation and the establishment of a [[neoliberal]] economy in Peru.<ref name="CANbio">{{cite journal |last1=Gaussens |first1=Pierre |date=2020 |title=The forced serilization of indigenous population in Mexico in the 1990s |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Bioethics]] |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=180+ |doi=10.7202/1073797ar |s2cid=234586692 |quote=a government plan, developed by the Peruvian army between 1989 and 1990s to deal with the Shining Path insurrection, later known as the 'Green Plan', whose (unpublished) text expresses in explicit terms a genocidal intention |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Burt-1998"/> During his campaigning for the [[1990 Peruvian general election]], [[Alberto Fujimori]] initially expressed concern against the proposed neoliberal policies of his opponent [[Mario Vargas Llosa]].<ref>{{cite web |date=April 14, 1990 |title=La frugalidad de "Cambio 90" y el derroche de Fredemo |trans-title=The frugality of "Cambio 90" and the waste of Fredemo |publisher=El Proceso |url=http://www.proceso.com.mx/154825/la-frugalidad-de-cambio-90-y-el-derroche-de-fredemo |access-date=December 27, 2017 |archive-date=September 20, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920122715/https://www.proceso.com.mx/154825/la-frugalidad-de-cambio-90-y-el-derroche-de-fredemo |url-status=dead |language=es}}</ref> Peruvian magazine ''[[Oiga (magazine)|Oiga]]'' reported that, following the election, the armed forces were unsure of Fujimori's willingness to fulfill the plan's objectives, though they planned to convince Fujimori to agree to the operation prior to his inauguration.<ref name="Oiga-1993">{{Cite magazine |date=July 12, 1993 |title=El "Plan Verde" Historia de una traición |trans-title=The "Green Plan" Story of a betrayal |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/310286817/El-Plan-Verde |magazine=[[Oiga (magazine)|Oiga]] |volume=647 |language=es}}</ref> After taking office, Fujimori abandoned his campaign's economic platform, adopting more aggressive neoliberal policies than those espoused by his election competitor Vargas Llosa.<ref name="gouge32">{{Cite book |last=Gouge |first=Thomas |title=Exodus from Capitalism: The End of Inflation and Debt |date=2003 |page=363}}</ref> With Fujimori's compliance, plans for a coup as designed in Plan Verde were prepared for two years and finally executed during the [[1992 Peruvian coup d'état]], which ultimately established a civilian-military regime.<ref name="LAgolpe1">{{cite journal |last1=Cameron |first1=Maxwell A. |date=June 1998 |title=Latin American Autogolpes: Dangerous Undertows in the Third Wave of Democratisation |journal=[[Third World Quarterly]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=228 |doi=10.1080/01436599814433 |quote=the outlines for Peru's presidential coup were first developed within the armed forces before the 1990 election. This Plan Verde was shown to President Fujimorti after the 1990 election before his inauguration. Thus, the president was able to prepare for an eventual self-coup during the first two years of his administration}}</ref><ref name="Oiga-1993"/>

Shortly after the inauguration of Fujimori, his government received a $715 million grant from [[United States Agency for International Development|United States Agency for International Development (USAID)]] on 29 September 1990 for the Policy Analysis, Planning and Implementation Project (PAPI) that was developed "to support economic policy reform in the country".<ref name="US AID-1997">{{Cite web |date=May 1997 |title=Evaluation of the Policy Analysis, Planning and Implementation (PAPI) Project USAID/Peru |url=https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PDABR060.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061007061521/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PDABR060.pdf |archive-date=October 7, 2006 |url-status=dead |website=[[United States Agency of International Development]]}}</ref> De Soto proved to be influential to Fujimori, who began to repeat de Soto's advocacy for deregulating the Peruvian economy.<ref>{{Cite news |date=March 4, 1991 |title=Peru's Fujimori Weighs In On Behalf of Street Sellers Nation's informal economy is protected in president's economic plan |work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]}}</ref> Under Fujimori, de Soto served as "the President's personal representative", with ''[[The New York Times]]'' describing de Soto as an "overseas salesman", while others dubbed de Soto as the "informal president" for Fujimori.<ref name="Brooke-1990">{{Cite news |last1=Brooke |first1=James |date=November 27, 1990 |title=A Peruvian Is Laying Out Another Path |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/11/27/world/a-peruvian-is-laying-out-another-path.html |access-date=September 26, 2020 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name="Pee-2018a"/> In a recommendation to Fujimori, de Soto called for a "shock" to Peru's economy.<ref name="Pee-2018a"/> The policies included a 300% tax increase, unregulated prices and privatizing two-hundred and fifty state-owned entities.<ref name="Pee-2018a"/> The policies of de Soto led to the immediate suffering of poor Peruvians who saw unregulated prices increase rapidly.<ref name="Pee-2018a" /> Those living in poverty saw prices increase so much that they could no longer afford food.<ref name="Pee-2018a" /> ''The New York Times'' wrote that de Soto advocated for the collapse of Peru's society, with the economist saying that a civil crisis was necessary to support the policies of Fujimori.<ref name="NYTfeb">{{cite news |last1=Nash |first1=Nathaniel C. |date=February 24, 1991 |title=The World; Fujimori In the Time Of Cholera |page=Section 4, Page 2 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/02/24/weekinreview/the-world-fujimori-in-the-time-of-cholera.html |access-date=August 5, 2021}}</ref> Fujimori and de Soto would ultimately break their ties after de Soto recommended increased involvement of citizens within the government, which was received with disapproval by Fujimori.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Robinson |first=Eugene |date=March 23, 1991 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1991/03/23/peruvians-puzzle-over-president/7010b183-2ef6-4e76-8d53-710d9f5921d6/|title=Peruvians Puzzle Over President; Popularity Plummets As 'Fujishock' Felt |page=a12 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |quote=But when de Soto announced a program of administrative reform to involve the public in government decisions, Fujimori's cabinet undercut him.}}</ref> USAID would go on to assist the Fujimori government with rewriting the 1993 Peruvian constitution, with the agency concluding in 1997 that it helped with the "preparation of legislative texts" and "contributed to the emergence of a private sector advisory role".<ref name="Rendon-2013">{{Cite book |last=Rendón |first=Silvio |title=La intervención de los Estados Unidos en el Perú |language=es |trans-title=The intervention of the United States in Peru |publisher=Editorial Sur |year=2013 |isbn=9786124574139 |pages=150–152}}</ref><ref name="US AID-1997"/> The policies promoted by de Soto and implemented by Fujimori eventually caused macroeconomic stability and a reduction in the rate of [[inflation]], though Peru's poverty rate remained largely unchanged with over half of the population living in poverty in 1998.<ref name="Pee-2018a"/><ref name="Stokes-1997">{{cite journal |last1=Stokes |first1=Susan |title=Are Parties What's Wrong with Democracy in Latin America? |journal=XX International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, Guadalajara, Mexico, April 17–19, 1997 |year=1997 |citeseerx=10.1.1.569.1490}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pee |first=Robert |title=The Reagan Administration, the Cold War, and the Transition to Democracy Promotion |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-3319963815 |pages=187–188}}</ref>

According to the [[Foundation for Economic Education]], USAID, the [[United Nations Population Fund|United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)]] and the [[Nippon Foundation]] also supported the sterilization efforts of the Fujimori government.<ref name="McMaken-2018">{{Cite web |last=McMaken |first=Ryan |date=October 26, 2018 |title=How the U.S. Government Led a Program That Forcibly Sterilized Thousands of Poor Peruvian Women in the 1990s |url=https://fee.org/articles/the-us-government-led-a-program-that-forcibly-sterilized-thousands-of-peruvian-women/ |access-date=August 4, 2021 |website=[[Foundation for Economic Education]] |language=en}}</ref> E. Liagin reported that from 1993 to 1998, USAID "basically took charge of the national health system of Peru" during the period of forced sterilizations.<ref name="McMaken-2018"/> At least 300,000 Peruvians were victims of forced sterilization by the Fujimori government in the 1990s, with the majority being affected by the [[National Population Program|PNSRPF]].<ref name="CANbio"/> The policy of sterilizations resulted in a generational shift that included a smaller younger generation that could not provide economic stimulation to rural areas, making such regions more impoverished.<ref name="BBC News-2002">{{Cite news |date=July 24, 2002 |title=Mass sterilisation scandal shocks Peru |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2148793.stm |access-date=August 4, 2021}}</ref>

Though economic statistics show improved economic data in Peru in recent decades, the wealth earned between 1990 and 2020 was not distributed throughout the country; living standards showed disparities between the more-developed capital city of Lima and similar coastal regions while rural provinces remained impoverished.<ref name="BA Times-2021">{{Cite web |date=June 3, 2021 |title=Buenos Aires Times {{!}} Inequality fuels rural teacher's unlikely bid to upend Peru |url=https://batimes.com.ar/news/latin-america/inequality-fuels-a-rural-teachers-unlikely-bid-to-upend-peru.phtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604101055/https://batimes.com.ar/news/latin-america/inequality-fuels-a-rural-teachers-unlikely-bid-to-upend-peru.phtml |archive-date=June 4, 2021 |access-date=June 4, 2021 |website=[[Buenos Aires Times]] |publisher=[[Bloomberg.com|Bloomberg]]}}</ref><ref name="Allen-2021">{{cite magazine |last=Allen |first=Nicolas |date=June 1, 2021 |title=Pedro Castillo Can Help End Neoliberalism in Peru |url=https://jacobinmag.com/2021/06/pedro-castillo-peru-libre-keiko-fujimori-runoff-election-june-6-neoliberalism |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618113630/https://www.jacobinmag.com/2021/06/pedro-castillo-peru-libre-keiko-fujimori-runoff-election-june-6-neoliberalism |archive-date=June 18, 2021 |access-date=June 3, 2021 |magazine=[[Jacobin (magazine)|Jacobin]]}}</ref><ref name="O'Boyle-2021">{{Cite web |last=O'Boyle |first=Brendan |date=May 3, 2021 |title=Pedro Castillo and the 500-Year-Old Lima vs Rural Divide |url=https://www.americasquarterly.org/article/pedro-castillo-and-the-500-year-old-lima-vs-rural-divide/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603100944/https://www.americasquarterly.org/article/pedro-castillo-and-the-500-year-old-lima-vs-rural-divide/ |archive-date=June 3, 2021 |access-date=June 3, 2021 |website=[[Americas Quarterly]] |language=en-US}}</ref> Sociologist Maritza Paredes of the [[Pontifical Catholic University of Peru]] stated, "People see that all the natural resources are in the countryside but all the benefits are concentrated in Lima."<ref name="BA Times-2021"/> In 2020, the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Peru]] compounded these disparities,<ref name="Allen-2021"/><ref name="O'Boyle-2021"/> with political scientist Professor Farid Kahhat of the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru stating that, "market reforms in Peru have yielded positive results in terms of reducing poverty ... But what the pandemic has laid bare, particularly in Peru, is that poverty was reduced while leaving the miserable state of public services unaltered{{snd}}most clearly in the case of health services."<ref name="Allen-2021"/> The candidacy of [[Pedro Castillo]] in the [[2021 Peruvian general election]] brought attention to the disparities between urban and rural Peruvians, with much of his support being earned in the exterior portions of the country.<ref name="O'Boyle-2021"/> Castillo ultimately won the election, with ''The New York Times'' reporting his victory as the "clearest repudiation of the country's establishment".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tegel |first=Simeon |title=Presumed President-elect Pedro Castillo faces challenges in Peru |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/6/18/who-is-pedro-castillo-perus-presumed-president-elect |access-date=June 22, 2021 |work=[[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al Jazeera]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Taj |first1=Mitra |last2=Turkewitz |first2=Julie |date=July 20, 2021 |title=Pedro Castillo, Leftist Political Outsider, Wins Peru Presidency |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/19/world/americas/peru-election-pedro-castillo.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/19/world/americas/peru-election-pedro-castillo.html |archive-date=December 28, 2021 |url-access=limited |access-date=July 20, 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref>