Editing Mark Antony (section)

==The Second Triumvirate==
{{main|Second Triumvirate}}

===Forming the alliance===
[[File:Octavian and Antony denarius.jpg|thumb|300x300px|[[Denarius]] struck at [[Ephesus]] in 41 B.C. commemorating the Second Triumvirate. On one side is [[Octavian]], later Caesar Augustus. ]]
With Antony defeated, the senate assigned command of the legions in northern Italy to Decimus. [[Sextus Pompey]], son of Caesar's old rival [[Pompey Magnus]], was given command of the Republic's fleet from his base in Sicily while Brutus and Cassius were granted the governorships of [[Roman Macedonia|Macedonia]] and [[Roman Syria|Syria]] respectively. These appointments attempted to renew the "republican" cause.<ref>Hinard, 2000, p. 838</ref> However, the eight legions serving under Octavian, composed largely of Caesar's veterans, refused to follow one of Caesar's murderers, allowing Octavian to retain his command. Meanwhile, Antony recovered his position by joining forces with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, who had been assigned the governorship of [[Transalpine Gaul]] and [[Nearer Spain]].<ref>Syme, 1939, pp. 176–186.</ref> Antony sent Lepidus to Rome to broker a conciliation. Though he was an ardent Caesarian, Lepidus had maintained friendly relations with the senate and with Sextus Pompey. His legions, however, quickly joined Antony, giving him control over seventeen legions, the largest army in the West.<ref>Hinard, 2000, pp. 839–840</ref>

[[File:Roman-Empire-43BC.png|thumb|450px|Map of the [[Roman Republic]] in 43 BC after the establishment of the [[Second Triumvirate]]: {{colbegin|colwidth=200px}}
{{legend|#81EE5B|Antony}}{{legend|#C19666|Lepidus}}{{legend|#DE8DE0|Octavian}}{{legend|#FF925E|Triumvirs collectively}}
{{legend|#7D87FF|Sextus Pompey}}{{legend|#ED1C24|The Liberators}}{{legend|#FED250|Rome's client kingdoms}}{{legend|#FF8C8C|Ptolemaic Egypt}}{{colend}}]]

By mid-May, Octavian began secret negotiations to form an alliance with Antony to unify the Caesarians against the ''liberatores''. Remaining in Cisalpine Gaul, Octavian dispatched emissaries to Rome in July 43 BC demanding he be appointed consul to succeed Hirtius and Pansa and that the senate rescind the decree declaring Antony a public enemy.<ref>Rowell, 1962, pp. 26–27</ref> When the senate refused, Octavian marched on Rome with his eight legions and assumed control of the city in August 43&nbsp;BC. Octavian had himself irregularly elected consul with [[Quintus Pedius (consul)|a cousin]], rewarded his soldiers, and then set about prosecuting Caesar's murderers. Under the ''[[lex Pedia]]'', all of the conspirators and Sextus Pompey were convicted "in absentia" and declared public enemies. Then, at the instigation of Lepidus, Octavian went to Cisalpine Gaul to meet Antony.

In November 43 BC, Octavian, Lepidus, and Antony met near [[Bologna|Bononia]].<ref>Eck, 2003, p. 15</ref> After two days of discussions, the group agreed to establish a three man dictatorship to govern the Republic for five years, known to modern historians as the [[Second Triumvirate]]. They shared military command of the republic's armies and provinces among themselves: Antony received Gaul, Lepidus Spain, and Octavian (as the junior partner) Africa. They jointly governed Italy. The triumvirate would have to conquer the rest of Rome's holdings; Brutus and Cassius held the [[Eastern Mediterranean]], and Sextus Pompey held the Mediterranean islands.<ref>Hinard, 2000, pp. 841–842</ref> On 27 November 43 BC, the triumvirate was formally established by a new law, the ''[[lex Titia]]''. Octavian and Antony reinforced their alliance through Octavian's marriage to Antony's stepdaughter, [[Claudia (wife of Octavian)|Claudia]].

[[File:Fulvia y Marco Antonio, o La venganza de Fulvia (Museo del Prado).jpg|thumb|left|upright=2|The vengeance of Fulvia by Francisco Maura y Montaner, 1888, depicting Fulvia, Antony's wife, inspecting the severed head of Cicero]]
The primary objective of the triumvirate was to avenge Caesar's death and to make war upon his murderers. Before marching against Brutus and Cassius in the East, the triumvirs issued [[proscription]]s against their enemies in Rome. The dictator [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]] had taken similar action to purge Rome of his opponents in 82&nbsp;BC. The proscribed were named on public lists, stripped of citizenship, and outlawed. Their wealth and property were confiscated by the state, and rewards were offered to anyone who secured their arrest or death. With such encouragements, the proscription produced deadly results; two thousand [[equites]] were executed, and one third of the senate. Antony forced Octavian to give up [[Cicero]], a personal enemy of Antony and friend of Octavian, who was then killed on 7 December. The confiscations helped replenish the [[Aerarium|state treasury]], which had been depleted by Caesar's civil war the decade before; when this seemed insufficient to fund the imminent war against Brutus and Cassius, the triumvirs imposed new taxes, especially on the wealthy. By January 42&nbsp;BC the proscription had ended; it had lasted two months, and though less bloody than Sulla's, it traumatized Roman society. A number of those named and outlawed had fled to either Sextus Pompey in Sicily or to the ''liberatores'' in the East.<ref>Hinard, 2000, pp. 846–847</ref> Senators who swore loyalty to the triumvirate were allowed to keep their positions; on 1 January 42 BC, the senate officially deified Caesar as "[[Divus Julius|The Divine Julius]]", and confirmed Antony's position as his high priest.

===War against the Liberators===
{{main|Liberators' civil war|Battle of Philippi}}

Due to the infighting within the triumvirate during 43 BC, Brutus and Cassius had assumed control of much of Rome's eastern territories, and amassed a large army. Before the triumvirate could cross the [[Adriatic]] into Greece, the triumvirate had to address the threat posed by Sextus Pompey and his fleet. From his base in Sicily, Sextus raided the Italian coast and blockaded the triumvirs. Octavian's friend and admiral [[Quintus Salvidienus Rufus]] thwarted an attack by Sextus against the southern Italian mainland at [[Rhegium]], but Salvidienus was then defeated in the resulting naval battle because of the inexperience of his crews. Only when Antony arrived with his fleet was the blockade broken. Though the blockade was defeated, control of Sicily remained in Sextus' hand, but the defeat of the ''liberatores'' was the triumvirate's first priority.

[[File:Phil2.png|300px|thumb|right|First Battle of Philippi – 3 October 42 BC]]
[[File:Phil3.png|300px|thumb|right|Second Battle of Philippi – 23 October 42 BC]]
In the summer of 42 BC, Octavian and Antony sailed for Macedonia to face the ''liberatores'' with nineteen legions, the vast majority of their army<ref name="ReferenceA">Appian, ''The Civil Wars'', Book 14, CVIII</ref> (approximately 100,000 regular infantry plus supporting cavalry and irregular auxiliary units), leaving Rome under the administration of Lepidus. Likewise, the army of the ''liberatores'' also commanded an army of nineteen legions; their legions, however, were not at full strength while the legions of Antony and Octavian were.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> While the triumvirs commanded a larger number of infantry, the Liberators commanded a larger cavalry contingent.<ref>Hinard, 2000, p. 850</ref> The ''liberatores'', who controlled Macedonia, did not wish to engage in a decisive battle, but rather to attain a good defensive position and then use their naval superiority to block the Triumvirs' communications with their supply base in Italy. They had spent the previous months plundering Greek cities to swell their war-chest and had gathered in Thrace with the Roman legions from the Eastern provinces and levies from Rome's client kingdoms.

Brutus and Cassius held a position on the high ground along both sides of the ''[[via Egnatia]]'' west of the city of [[Philippi]]. The south position was anchored to a supposedly impassable marsh, while the north was bordered by impervious hills. They had plenty of time to fortify their position with a rampart and a ditch. Brutus put his camp on the north while Cassius occupied the south of the via Egnatia. Antony arrived shortly and positioned his army on the south of the via Egnatia, while Octavian put his legions north of the road. Antony offered battle several times, but the ''liberatores'' were not lured to leave their defensive stand. Thus, Antony tried to secretly outflank the Brutus and Cassius' position through the marshes in the south. This provoked a pitched battle on 3 October 42&nbsp;BC. Antony commanded the triumvirate's army due to Octavian's sickness on the day, with Antony directly controlling the right flank opposite Cassius. Because of his health, Octavian remained in camp while his lieutenants assumed a position on the left flank opposite Brutus. In the resulting first battle of Philippi, Antony defeated Cassius and captured his camp while Brutus overran Octavian's troops and penetrated into the Triumvirs' camp but was unable to capture the sick Octavian. The battle was a tactical draw, but due to poor communications Cassius believed the battle was a complete defeat and committed suicide to prevent being captured.

Brutus assumed sole command of the army and preferred a [[war of attrition]] over open conflict. His officers, however, were dissatisfied with these defensive tactics and his Caesarian veterans threatened to defect, forcing Brutus to give battle at the second battle of Philippi on 23 October. While the battle was initially evenly matched, Antony's leadership routed Brutus' forces. Brutus committed suicide the day after the defeat and the remainder of his army swore allegiance to the Triumvirate. Over fifty thousand Romans died in the two battles. While Antony treated the losers mildly, Octavian dealt cruelly with his prisoners and even beheaded Brutus' corpse.<ref>Jallet-Huant, 2009, pp. 144–153</ref><ref>Hindard, 2000, pp. 850–851</ref><ref>Cosme, 2009, pp. 56–57</ref>

The battles of Philippi ended the civil war in favor of the triumvirs. With the defeat of Brutus and Cassius, only Sextus Pompey and his fleet remained to challenge the triumvirate's control of the Roman world.