Editing Love (section)

==Cultural views==
Ancient authors imagined love as a striving for perfection in beauty and goodness. From the high Middle Ages, love was generally the central category of ruler relationships and the relationship between "the sovereign power and the subject". It functioned as a form of behavior that "structured and hierarchized the political space, not as a feeling related to subjectivity and authenticity as in the modern sense". Evidence shows that love was a subject taught in ruling houses until the 13th century. In the context of [[mirrors for princes]], the ruler should come to love his subjects, and his subjects to love him in return. Some medieval texts (Machiavelli, ''Il principe'', 1513/32; "The Prince") instruct the ruler to use fear as a means of maintaining the relationship, while others (Erasmus of Rotterdam, ''Institutio principis christiani'', 1515; "Instruction of the Christian prince") advocate for "insight and experience".<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last=Jarzebowski |first=C. |date=2015 |title=Love. In F. Jaeger (ed.) |url=https://doi.org/10.1163/2352-0272_emho_COM_023397 |website=Encyclopedia of Early Modern History Online. Brill.|doi=10.1163/2352-0272_emho_COM_023397 }}</ref>

Unhealthy forms of love have always been apparent throughout the course of history. In the context of sexual violence, love in the context of desire was interpreted differently, as a "force" that caused men to rape women. Men were often described to be powerless against it, and the act of sexual violence was instead seen to be an act of love in the form of "seduction". Especially in courts of law, this concept was often used as an excuse to mask the alleged facts of sexual violence.<ref name=":11" />

===Ancient Greek===
{{See also|Greek words for love}}
[[File:Eros bow Musei Capitolini MC410.jpg|thumb|Roman copy of a Greek sculpture by [[Lysippus]] depicting [[Eros]], the Greek personification of romantic love]]
[[Greek language|Greek]] distinguishes [[Greek words for love|several different senses]] in which the word "love" is used. Ancient Greeks identified three main forms of love: [[friendship]] or [[platonic love|platonic desire]] ({{transliteration|grc|[[philia]]}}), sexual or [[romance (love)|romantic desire]] ({{transliteration|grc|[[eros (concept)|eros]]}}), and [[Kenosis|self-emptying]] or divine love ({{transliteration|grc|[[agape]]}}).<ref name=":0" /> Modern authors have distinguished further varieties of romantic love.<ref>[[Stendhal]], in his book ''On Love'' ("De l'amour"; Paris, 1822), distinguished carnal love, passionate love, a kind of uncommitted love that he called "taste-love", and love of vanity. [[Denis de Rougemont]] in his book ''Love in the Western World'' traced the story of passionate love ({{lang|fr|l'amour-passion}}) from its courtly to its romantic forms. [[Benjamin Péret]], in the introduction to his ''Anthology of Sublime Love'' (Paris, 1956), further identified "sublime love", a state of realized idealisation perhaps equatable with the romantic form of passionate love.</ref>

;''[[Agapē|Agape]]'' ({{lang|grc|ἀγάπη}} {{transliteration|grc|agápē}})
: ''Agape'', often a Christian term, denotes a form of love that stands apart from the conventional understanding of affection. Rooted in theological discourse, ''agape'' represents a love that is characterized by its spontaneous nature and its independence from the inherent value of its object. Originating from the Greek term for "love", ''agape'' has been examined within theological scholarship, particularly in contrast to ''eros.'' In the Christian tradition, agape is often attributed to the love of God for humanity, as well as humanity's reciprocal love for God and for one another, often termed as brotherly love. ''Agape'' is considered to be unmerited and unmotivated by any inherent worthiness in its recipient. Instead, it is portrayed as an expression of the nature of God, exemplifying divine love that transcends human comprehension.<ref name=":0" />

;''[[Eros (love)|Eros]]'' ({{lang|grc|ἔρως}} {{transliteration|grc|érōs}})
: ''Eros'' originally referred to a passionate desire, often synonymous with sexual passion, reflecting an egocentric nature. However, its modern interpretation portrays it as both selfish and responsive to the merits of the beloved, thus contingent on reasons. Plato, in his ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'', argued that sexual desire, fixated on physical beauty, is inadequate and should evolve into an appreciation of the beauty of the soul, culminating in an appreciation of the form of beauty itself.<ref name=":0" /> In Greek mythology, [[Eros]] symbolizes the state of being in love, extending beyond mere physical sexuality (referred to as "Venus"). Unrestrained Venus can reduce individuals to mere appetite, but when Eros is present, the focus shifts to the beloved, elevating intimacy beyond physical gratification. Eros is depicted as divine yet potentially dangerous, capable of inspiring both altruism and selfishness.{{r|Nygren}}

;''[[Philia]]'' ({{lang|grc|φιλία}} {{transliteration|grc|philía}})
: ''Philia'' originally describing an affectionate regard or friendly feeling, extended to relationships like friendship, family members, business partners, and one's nation. Similar to ''eros'', ''philia'' is often seen as responsive to positive attributes in the beloved. This similarity has led scholars to think whether the primary difference between romantic ''eros'' and ''philia'' lies solely in the sexual dimension of the former. The distinction between the two becomes more complex with attempts from scholars to diminish the importance of the sexual aspect in eros, contributing to a nuanced understanding of these forms of love.<ref name=":0" /> ''Philia'' was articulated by Aristotle in his ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]].'' Aristotle suggests that ''philia'' can be motivated by considerations for either one's own benefit or the benefit of the other. ''Philia'' often arises from the utility found in the relationship or from admiration for the character or virtues of the other individual. Aristotle further elucidates that the foundation of philia rests on objective grounds; individuals must share similar dispositions, refrain from holding grudges, and embody qualities such as justice, among others.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Philosophy of Love {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/love/ |access-date=2024-04-23 |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Ancient Roman===
In Latin, friendship was distinctly termed ''amicitia,'' while ''amor'' encompassed erotic passion, familial attachment, and, albeit less commonly, the affection between friends. [[Cicero]], in his essay ''[[On Friendship]]'' reflects on the innate human tendency to both love oneself and seek out another with whom to intertwine minds, nearly blending them into a singular entity. This suggests that while friends remain distinct individuals, they also, in some sense, become intertwined, embodying a shared essence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Konstan |first=David |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/12383 |title=In the Orbit of Love |date=2018-07-19 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-088787-2 |volume=1 |language=en |doi=10.1093/oso/9780190887872.001.0001}}</ref>

[[Lucretius]] perceives love as a disruptive and irrational force, leading to madness and despair. To him, it is an affliction distorting reality, a primal urge rooted in the biological need for species to propagate. He emphasizes love's futility and self-destructive nature. In contrast, [[Ovid]] acknowledges the pleasure of love alongside its risks and complexities. He views love as a game of manipulation and deception, marked by a blend of [[hedonism]] and [[Cynicism (contemporary)|cynicism]]. Ovid recognizes the transient nature of passion and the inevitable disappointment in romantic relationships.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Singer |first=Irving |date=1965 |title=Love in Ovid and Lucretius |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3849704 |journal=The Hudson Review |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=537–559 |doi=10.2307/3849704 |jstor=3849704 |issn=0018-702X}}</ref>

===Chinese===
[[File:Love-zh.svg|thumb|left|upright|{{lang|zh|愛}} (Mandarin: {{transliteration|cmn|ài}}), the traditional [[Chinese character]] for love, contains a [[heart]] ({{lang|zh|心}}) in the middle.]]

[[Ren (philosophy)|Ren]] (仁), a concept in [[Confucianism]] philosophy, embodies the essence of humanity and virtue. It is regarded as the sum of all virtues within a person, encompassing traits such as selflessness and self-cultivation. Ren emphasizes the cultivation of harmonious relationships within society, starting from the family unit and extending outward. Within Confucianism, these relationships are delineated by five main categories: father-son, older brother-younger brother, husband-wife, older friend-younger friend, and lord-servant.  In Confucianism, one displays benevolent love by performing actions such as [[filial piety]] from children, kindness from parents, loyalty to the king and so forth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Havens |first=Timothy |date=2013 |title=Confucianism as Humanism |url=https://uca.edu/cahss/files/2020/07/Confucianism-as-Humanism.pdf |journal=CLA Journal}}</ref>

Central to the concept of Ren is the notion of reciprocity and empathetic understanding. It is often interpreted as akin to love (愛, ''ài''), but sometimes it also considered a stage between ''ài'' and [[Ling (Chinese religion)|''ling'']], characterized by the sincere and open-hearted expression of human feelings. Through genuine love for others, individuals cultivate Ren and foster deeper connections that bridge the gap between the human and the divine. Ren's significance lies in its ability to foster genuine human connection and empathy, laying the foundation for harmonious relationships within society.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Huaiyu |last2=王懷聿 |date=2012 |title="Ren" and "Gantong": Openness of Heart and the Root of Confucianism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41684476 |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=463–504 |doi=10.1353/pew.2012.0067 |jstor=41684476 |issn=0031-8221}}</ref>

Mozi, a Chinese philosopher, articulated a philosophy centered on the principle of universal love. At the core of his teachings lay the belief that genuine harmony and societal well-being could only be achieved through love for others, transcending narrow self-interest. Mozi contended that universal love was not merely an abstract concept but a practical imperative, requiring individuals to actively promote the welfare of all members of society through their actions.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Yuxi (Candice) |date=2016-04-28 |title=Mozi: Universal Love and Human Agency |url=https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cclura_2016/1 |journal=2016 Claremont Colleges Library Undergraduate Research Award}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Citation |last=Cotesta |first=Vittorio |title=The Heavens and the Earth: Graeco-Roman, Ancient Chinese, and Mediaeval Islamic Images of the World |date=2021-01-01 |url=https://brill.com/display/title/33819 |access-date=2024-04-25 |publisher=Brill |language=en |isbn=978-90-04-46472-8}}</ref>

In Mozi's philosophical framework, universal love was not only a moral obligation but also a divine principle originating from Heaven itself. He argued that this principle was exemplified through the actions of sage-kings from ancient times, who demonstrated how love could manifest in tangible ways within human interactions. Mozi's advocacy for universal love extended beyond interpersonal relationships; he believed it should guide the selection of rulers and the structuring of society, emphasizing reciprocity and egalitarianism as foundational principles for a harmonious social order.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

In [[Taoism]], the concept of 慈 (''ci'') embodies compassion or love, with connotations of tender nurturing akin to a mother's care. It emphasizes the idea that creatures can only thrive through raising and nurturing. ''Ci'' serves as the wellspring of compassion or love that transcends preconceived notions of individuals, instead fostering compassion for people as they are. Love, as depicted in the Taoist text, ''[[Daodejing]]'', is depicted as open and responsive to each person's unique circumstances. Taoism juxtaposes human beings with the vastness of nature, likening the creation of people to the formation of waves in the ocean. Unlike Confucianism, as portrayed in the Taoist text [[Zhuangzi (book)|''Zhuangzi'']], Taoist responses to the loss of a beloved may involve either mourning their death or embracing the loss and finding joy in new creations. Daoist love seeks connections that surpass distinctions and superficial reflections.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781315645209/routledge-handbook-love-philosophy-adrienne-martin |title=The Routledge Handbook of Love in Philosophy |journal=Taylor & Francis |date=2018-12-21 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-64520-9 |editor-last=Martin |editor-first=Adrienne M. |location=New York |doi=10.4324/9781315645209}}</ref>

===Japanese===
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Ohatsu and Tokube statue at Tsuyunoten Shrine.jpg|right|thumb|Ohatsu and Tokubei, characters of ''[[Sonezaki Shinjū]]'']] -->
The [[Japanese language]] uses three words to convey the English equivalent of love — {{Nihongo|''ai''|愛}}, {{Nihongo|''koi''|恋 or 孤悲}} and {{Nihongo|''ren'ai''|恋愛}}. The term ''ai'' carries a multiple meanings, encompassing feelings of feelings from superior to inferiors, compassion and empathy towards others and selfless love, originally referred to beauty and was often used in a religious context. Initially synonymous with ''koi'', representing romantic love between a man and a woman, emphasizing its physical expression, ''ai'' underwent a transformation during the early [[Meiji era]]. It evolved into a euphemistic term for {{Nihongo|renbo|恋慕}} or love attachment, signifying a shift towards a more egalitarian treatment and consideration of others as equals. Prior to Western influence, the term ''koi'' generally represented romantic love. {{transliteration|ja|Koi}} describes a longing for a member of the opposite sex and is typically interpreted as selfish and wanting. The term's origins come from the concept of lonely solitude as a result of separation from a loved one. Though modern usage of {{transliteration|ja|koi}} focuses on sexual love and infatuation, the Manyō used the term to cover a wider range of situations, including tenderness, benevolence, and material desire. The fusion of ''ai'' and ''koi'' gave rise to the modern term ''ren'ai''; its usage more closely resembles that of {{transliteration|ja|koi}} in the form of romantic love.<ref name="Ryang2006">{{cite book |last1=Ryang |first1=Sonia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tkOUAgAAQBAJ |title=Love in Modern Japan: Its Estrangement from Self, Sex and Society |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-135-98863-0 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tkOUAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 13]–14 |access-date=3 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160711112044/https://books.google.com/books?id=tkOUAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |archive-date=11 July 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last1=Palmer |first1=Gary B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VfPIZCIfGIAC&dq=japan+love+ai+koi+ren'ai+&pg=PA131 |title=Languages of Sentiment: Cultural constructions of emotional substrates |last2=Occhi |first2=Debra J. |date=1999-12-15 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-9995-6 |language=en}}</ref>

The concept {{Nihongo|''amae''|甘え}}, the dependency and emotional bonds between an infant and its mother—a bond that lays the foundation for the archetypal concept of love. Japanese culture traditionally distinguishes between marriage and love, valuing practical considerations and complementarity within family units.<ref name=":3" />

===Indian===
[[File:Radha Madhavam.jpg|thumb|left|The love stories of the Hindu deities [[Krishna]] and [[Radha]] have influenced the Indian culture and arts. Above: Radha Madhavam by [[Raja Ravi Varma]].]]
In [[ancient India]], there was an understanding of erotics and the art of love. References in the [[Rigveda]] suggest the presence of romantic narratives in ancient Indo-Aryan society, evident in dialogues between deities like [[Yama]] and [[Yami]], and [[Pururavas]] and [[Urvashi]]. The [[Sanskrit|Sanskrit language]], offered various terms to convey the concept of love, such as ''kama,'' ''sneha, priya, vatsalya,'' ''bhakti'', ''priti'' and ''prema''.<ref name=":4" />

In Indian literature, there are seven stages of love. The first is ''preska'', characterized by the desire to see something pleasant. Next is ''abhilasa,'' involving constant thoughts about the beloved. Then comes ''raga,'' signifying the mental inclination to be united with the beloved. Following that is ''shena'', which involves favorable activities directed towards the beloved. ''Prema'' is the stage where one cannot live without the beloved. Then there is ''rati'', which involves living together with the beloved. Finally, ''srngara'' represents the playful interaction with the beloved.<ref name=":4" />

''Kama'' initially representing desire and longing. Later, [[Vātsyāyana]], the author of the [[Kama Sutra]], explored the concept of ''kama'', defining it as the enjoyment of sensory pleasures with conscious awareness. However, there were also teachings cautioning against becoming overly attached to desire, advocating for the pursuit of genuine happiness through transcending desires. The [[Atharvaveda]],  presents ''kama'' as the tender affection between partners.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Hara |first=Minoru |date=2007 |title=Words for love in Sanskrit |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41913379 |journal=Rivista degli studi orientali|volume=80 |issue=1/4 |pages=81–106 |jstor=41913379 }}</ref>

Nevertheless, ''kama'' is also often associated with insatiable sexual desire intertwined with intense emotions like anger and greed, portraying it as potentially harmful. Over time, ''kama'' took on [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] qualities, evolving into the figure of the Indian Cupid.<ref name=":4" />

''Sneha'', considered the emotional facet of love, stands in contrast to the intense passion of ''kama'' with its calm demeanor. Characterized by moisture and viscosity, the term originally denoted oiliness. It is often compounded with words for family members, reflecting attachment to individuals like mothers, fathers, and sons. Those experiencing ''sneha'' tend to exhibit great concern for one another. While traditionally attributed to sensing, the [[Harshacharita]] presents a spontaneous perspective, suggesting it lacks a definitive cause. Due to its emotional nature, ''sneha'' is transient, emerging without reason and disappearing likewise.<ref name=":4" />

''Preman'' represents a heightened stage in the development of love, characterized by the unbearable feeling of separation from the beloved. Etymologically, it denotes the sense of endearment akin to one's own. ''Priti'', similar to ''preman'', denotes fondness for anything delightful and familiar. It encompasses a general liking for arts, sports, and objects, while also encompassing a human instinct. ''Priti'' is built on foundations of trust and fidelity. Friendly relations (''priti'') may persist between individuals but are not necessarily bound by affection (''sneha'').<ref name=":4" />

''Vatsalya'' originally signifies the tender affection exhibited by a cow towards her calf, extending to denote the love nurtured by elders or superiors towards the younger or inferior. This love is exemplified in the affection of parents towards their children, a husband's care for his wife, or a ruler's concern for their subjects. Conversely, ''bhakti'' denotes the love expressed by the younger towards the seniors, exemplified in a child's devotion to their parents.<ref name=":4" />{{clear}}

===Persian===
Interpretations of [[Rumi|Rumi's]] poetry and [[Sufi cosmology]] by scholars emphasize a divine-centric perspective, focusing on the transcendent nature of love. These interpretations emphasize Rumi's rejection of mortal attachments in favor of a love for the ultimate beloved, seen as embodying absolute beauty and grandeur. Scholars like [[William Chittick]] assert that all love stems from the divine, with God being both lover and beloved. [[Leonard Lewisohn (Islamic studies scholar)|Leonard Lewisohn]] characterizes Rumi's poetry as part of a mystical tradition that celebrates love as pathways to union with the divine, highlighting a transcendent experience.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Vali-Zadeh |first=Mahdieh |date=2022-06-02 |title=Agency of the Self and the Uncertain Nature of the Beloved in Persian Love Mysticism: Earthly, Ethereal, Masculine, or Feminine? |url=https://jurnalfuf.uinsa.ac.id/index.php/teosofi/article/view/1868 |journal=Teosofi: Jurnal Tasawuf Dan Pemikiran Islam |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=22–42 |doi=10.15642/teosofi.2022.12.1.22-42 |issn=2442-871X|doi-access=free }}</ref>
{{quote box
| author = [[Saadi (poet)|Sa'di]]
| salign = right
| source = ''[[Gulistan (book)|Gulistan]]''{{space|3}}
| quote = <poem>The children of Adam are limbs of one body
Having been created of one essence.
When the calamity of time afflicts one limb
The other limbs cannot remain at rest.
If you have no sympathy for the troubles of others
You are not worthy to be called by the name of "man".</poem>
}}
In [[Persian mysticism]], the concept of creation stems from love, viewed as the fundamental essence from which all beings originate and to which they ultimately return. This notion, influenced by [[neoplatonism]], portrays love as both earthly and transcendent, embodying a universal striving for reunion with the divine. Scholars such as [[Abdolhossein Zarrinkoob]] trace this philosophical stance, highlighting its fusion with ancient Persian religious beliefs in figures like [[Ibn Arabi]]. According to Islamicists like [[William Chittick]] and [[Leonard Lewisohn (Islamic studies scholar)|Leonard Lewisohn]], all forms of love find their origin in divine love, with creation serving as a reflection of God's beauty and love. This perspective is evident in the poetry of [[Hafez]] and others, where the concept of [[tajalli]], or divine self-manifestation, underscores the profound spiritual significance of love as it pertains to both human relationships and devotion to God.<ref name=":5" />