Editing Literacy (section)

== Social impact and demographics ==
The traditional concept of literacy widened as a consensus emerged among researchers in [[composition studies]], [[Education|education research]], and [[anthropological linguistics]] that it makes little sense to speak of reading or writing outside of a specific context, with linguist [[James Paul Gee]] describing it as "simply incoherent."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gee |first=James Paul |year=1989 |title=Literacy, Discourse, and Linguistics: Introduction |journal=Journal of Education |volume=171 |issue=1 |pages=5–17 |doi=10.1177/002205748917100101 |s2cid=58334868}}</ref> For example, even the extremely early stages of acquiring mastery over symbol shapes take place in a particular social context (even if that context is "school"), and, after print acquisition, every instance of reading or writing will be for a specific purpose and occasion with particular readers and writers in mind. Reading and writing, therefore, are never separable from social and cultural elements.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Multidisciplinary perspectives on literacy research |year=2005 |publisher=Hampton |isbn=978-1-572-73626-9 |editor-last=Beach |editor-first=Richard |edition=2nd |location=Cresskill, NJ |editor-last2=Green |editor-first2=Judith |editor-last3=Kamil |editor-first3=Michael |editor-last4=Shanahan |editor-first4=Timothy}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mkandwire |first=S. B. |year=2018 |title=Literacy versus Language: Exploring their Similarities and Differences |journal=Journal of Lexicography and Terminology |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=37–55}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Lindquist |first=Julie |title=Literacy |year=2015 |url=http://www.upcolorado.com/utah-state-university-press/item/2711-keywords-in-writing-studies |work=Keywords in Writing Studies |pages=99–102 |editor-last=Heilker |editor-first=Paul |access-date=2023-09-19 |publisher=Utah State University Press |doi=10.7330/9780874219746.c020 |isbn=978-0-874-21974-6 |editor2-last=Vandenberg |editor2-first=Peter|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Knobel |first=Michele |title=Everyday Literacies: Students, Discourse, and Social Practice |publisher=Peter Lang |year=1999 |location=New York}}</ref> A corollary point made by [[David Barton (linguist)|David Barton]] and [[Rosalind Ivanić]], among others, is that the cognitive and societal effects of acquiring literacy are not easily predictable, since, as [[Brian Street]] has argued, "the ways in which people address reading and writing are themselves rooted in conceptions of knowledge, identity, and being."<ref>{{Cite book |title=Literacy and development: ethnographic perspectives |year=2001 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-23451-1 |editor-last=Street |editor-first=Brian V. |location=London |pages=7–8 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Street |first1=Brian V. |title=Literacy in theory and practice |last2=Street |first2=Brain V. |year=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-28961-0}}</ref> Consequently, as [[Jack Goody]] has documented, historically, literacy has included the transformation of social systems that rely on literacy and the changing uses of literacy within those evolving systems.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goody |first=Jack |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/logic-of-writing-and-the-organization-of-society/A58ECF96A6302FDC7972E713BDE5568D |title=The Logic of Writing and the Organization of Society |year=1986 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-33962-9}}</ref>

=== Gender ===
[[File:Adult literacy rate, population 15+ years, male (%), OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Adult literacy rate, male (%), 2015<ref>{{Cite web |title=Adult literacy rate, population 15+ years, male (%) |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/adult-literacy-male |access-date=15 February 2020 |website=Our World in Data}}</ref>]]
[[File:Adult literacy rate, population 15+ years, female (%), OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Adult literacy rate, female (%), 2015<ref>{{Cite web |title=Adult literacy rate, population 15+ years, female (%) |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/adult-literacy-female |access-date=15 February 2020 |website=Our World in Data}}</ref>]]
[[File:Figure 4 Progress towards gender parity Reading the past writing the future.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Gender parity indices in youth literacy rates by region, 1990–2015. Progress towards gender parity in literacy started after 1990.]]
According to 2015 data collected by the [[UNESCO Institute for Statistics]], about two-thirds (63%) of the world's illiterate adults are women. This disparity was even starker in previous decades, and from 1970 to 2000, the global [[gender gap in literacy]] decreased significantly.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dorius |first1=Shawn F. |last2=Firebaugh |first2=Glenn |date=1 July 2010 |title=Trends in Global Gender Inequality |journal=Social Forces |volume=88 |issue=5 |pages=1941–1968 |doi=10.1353/sof.2010.0040 |issn=0037-7732 |pmc=3107548 |pmid=21643494}}</ref> Around the year 2013, however, this progress stagnated, with the gender gap holding almost constant over the last two decades.<ref name="UNESCO-2015" /> In general, the gender gap in literacy was not as pronounced as the regional gap; that is, differences between countries were often larger than gender differences within countries.<ref>{{Cite report |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/Resources/7778105-1299699968583/7786210-1315936222006/chapter-3.pdf |title=Gender Equality and Development: World Development Report |date=2012 |publisher=The World Bank |issue=114 |location=Washington, D. C. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412075924/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/Resources/7778105-1299699968583/7786210-1315936222006/chapter-3.pdf |archive-date=2019-04-12 |chapter=Education and Health: Where do Gender Differences Really Matter?}}{{Moved resource|date=September 2023}}</ref>

[[Sub-Saharan Africa]] has the lowest overall literacy rate and the widest gender gap: 52% of adult women and 68% of adult men are literate. A similar gender disparity exists in [[North Africa]], where 70% of adult women are literate versus 86% of adult men. In South Asia, 58% of adult women and 77% of adult men are literate.<ref name="UNESCO-2015" />

The 1990 World Conference on [[Education for All]], held in Jomtien, Thailand, brought attention to the literacy gender gap and prompted many developing countries to prioritize women's literacy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Agnaou |first=Fatima |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PWz6mAEACAAJ |title=Gender, Literacy, and Empowerment in Morocco |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-94765-7}}</ref>

In many contexts, female illiteracy coexists with other aspects of gender inequality. [[Martha Nussbaum]] says illiterate women are more vulnerable to becoming trapped in an abusive marriage, given that illiteracy limits their employment opportunities and worsens their position when [[intra-household bargaining|negotiating within the household]]. Moreover, Nussbaum links literacy to the ability for women to effectively communicate and collaborate with one another "to participate in a larger movement for political change."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nussbaum |first=Martha C. |date=1 January 2004 |title=Women's Education: A Global Challenge |journal=Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=332–333 |doi=10.1086/378571 |issn=0097-9740 |s2cid=144593937}}</ref>

==== Challenges of increasing female literacy ====

Social barriers can limit opportunities to increase literacy skills among women and girls; making literacy classes available can be ineffective when it conflicts with the use of the valuable limited time of women and girls.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hill |first1=M. Anne |last2=King |first2=Elizabeth |date=1 July 1995 |title=Women's education and economic well-being |journal=Feminist Economics |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=21–46 |doi=10.1080/714042230 |issn=1354-5701}}</ref> School-age girls may face more expectations than their male counterparts to perform household work and care for younger siblings.<ref name="World-Literacy-Foundation-2015" /> Generational dynamics can also perpetuate these disparities; illiterate parents may not readily appreciate the value of literacy for their daughters, particularly in traditional, rural societies with expectations that girls will remain at home.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Al-Mekhlafy |first=Tawfiq A. |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/278200-1099079877269/547664-1099080014368/DID_Girls_edu.pdf |title=Girls' Education in the 21st Century: Gender Equality, Empowerment, and Economic Growth |publisher=The World Bank |year=2008 |editor-last=Tembon |editor-first=Mercy |place=Washington D. C. |chapter=Strategies for Gender Equality in Basic and Secondary Education: A Comprehensive and Integrated Approach in the Republic of Yemen |editor-last2=Fort |editor-first2=Lucia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824222436/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/278200-1099079877269/547664-1099080014368/DID_Girls_edu.pdf |archive-date=2019-08-24}}{{Moved resource|date=September 2023}}</ref>

A [[World Bank]] and [[International Center for Research on Women]] review of academic literature concluded that [[child marriage]], which predominantly impacts girls, tends to reduce literacy levels.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wodon |first=Quentin |display-authors=etal |date=September 2015 |title=Child Marriage and the 2030 Agenda: Selected Findings from Early Research |url=http://www.costsofchildmarriage.org/publication/child-marriage-and-2030-agenda |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404061325/https://www.costsofchildmarriage.org/publication/child-marriage-and-2030-agenda |archive-date=2023-04-04 |website=The Economic Impacts of Child Marriage}}</ref> A 2008 analysis of the issue in Bangladesh found that for every additional year a girl's marriage is delayed, her likelihood of literacy increases by 5.6%.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Field |first1=Erica |last2=Ambrus |first2=Attila |date=1 October 2008 |title=Early Marriage, Age of Menarche, and Female Schooling Attainment in Bangladesh |journal=Journal of Political Economy |volume=116 |issue=5 |pages=881–930 |citeseerx=10.1.1.662.7231 |doi=10.1086/593333 |issn=0022-3808 |s2cid=215805592}}</ref> Similarly, a 2014 study found that in sub-Saharan Africa, marrying early significantly decreases a girl's probability of literacy, even after accounting for other variables.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Nguyen |first1=Minh Cong |title=Child Marriage and Education in Sub-Saharan Africa |date=September 2014 |url=http://allinschool.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/OOSC-2014-QW-Child-Marriage-final.pdf |editor-last=Wodon |editor-first=Quentin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629180823/http://allinschool.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/OOSC-2014-QW-Child-Marriage-final.pdf |chapter=Impact of Child Marriage on Literacy and Education Attainment in Africa |place=Washington D. C. |publisher=World Bank |archive-date=29 June 2016 |last2=Wodon |first2=Quentin}}</ref>   Therefore, a 2015 literature review recommended marriage postponement as part of a strategy to increase educational attainment levels, including [[female education|female literacy]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Parsons |first1=Jennifer |last2=Edmeades |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Kes |first3=Aslihan |last4=Petroni |first4=Suzanne |last5=Sexton |first5=Maggie |last6=Wodon |first6=Quentin |date=3 July 2015 |title=Economic Impacts of Child Marriage: A Review of the Literature |journal=The Review of Faith & International Affairs |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=12–22 |doi=10.1080/15570274.2015.1075757 |issn=1557-0274 |s2cid=146194521 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10986/23530}}</ref>

==== Gender gap for boys in developed countries ====

While women and girls comprise the majority of the global illiterate population, in many [[developed countries]], a literacy-[[gender gap]] exists in the opposite direction. Data from the [[Programme for International Student Assessment]] has consistently shown the literacy underachievement of boys within member countries of the OECD ([[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Watson |first1=Anne |last2=Kehler |first2=Michael |last3=Martino |first3=Wayne |date=1 February 2010 |title=The Problem of Boys' Literacy Underachievement: Raising Some Questions |journal=Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy |volume=53 |issue=5 |pages=356–361 |doi=10.1598/JAAL.53.5.1 |issn=1936-2706 |s2cid=35301500}}</ref> In view of such findings, many education specialists have recommended changing classroom practices to better accommodate boys' learning styles and removing any gender stereotypes that may create the perception that reading and writing are feminine activities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Senn |first=Nicole |date=1 November 2012 |title=Effective Approaches to Motivate and Engage Reluctant Boys in Literacy |journal=The Reading Teacher |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=211–220 |doi=10.1002/TRTR.01107 |issn=1936-2714}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Manitoba Education |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ZHAAAAACAAJ |title=Me Read? No Way!: A Practical Guide to Improving Boys' Literacy Skills |date=January 2006 |publisher=Government of Manitoba |isbn=978-0-771-13506-4}}</ref>

=== Socioeconomic impact ===
Many policy analysts consider literacy rates to be a crucial measure of the value of a region's [[human capital]]. For example, literate people can be more easily trained than illiterate people and generally have a higher socioeconomic status;<ref>{{Cite web |title=Phonics. It's Profitable |url=http://www.thephonicspage.org/On%20Phonics/profitable.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071221151117/http://www.thephonicspage.org/On%20Phonics/profitable.html |archive-date=21 December 2007 |access-date=11 December 2007 |website=The Phonics Page}}</ref> thus, they enjoy better health and employment prospects. The international community has come to consider literacy as a key facilitator and goal of development.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rao |first1=Vasudeva |last2=S |first2=B. |last3=Gupta |first3=P. Viswanadha |date=31 March 2006 |title=Low Female Literacy: Factors and Strategies |url=http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ797610 |journal=Australian Journal of Adult Learning |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=84–95 |issn=1443-1394}}</ref> In regard to the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] adopted by the UN in 2015, the [[UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning]] has declared the "central role of literacy in responding to sustainable development challenges such as health, social equality, economic empowerment and environmental sustainability."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hanemann |first=Ulrike |url=http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED564012 |title=Transforming Our World: Literacy for Sustainable Development |date=30 November 2014 |publisher=UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning |isbn=978-9-282-01200-0 |page=7}}</ref>

A majority of prisoners have been found to be illiterate, and in Edinburgh prison, winner of the 2010 Libraries Change Lives Award, "the library has become the cornerstone of the prison's literacy strategy", reducing recidivism and reoffending and allowing incarcerated people to work toward attaining higher socioeconomic status once released.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Scott |first=Kirsty |date=7 July 2010 |title=Prison library helps to transform lives |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2010/jul/07/edinburgh-prison-library-literacy-books}}</ref>

==== Effects on literacy learning ====
As socioeconomics affects brain development and brain functions are heavily involved in processing both input and output, a learner's environment can affect the cognitive process of learning [[Reading#Learning to read|how to read]] and write.<ref name="Hackman-2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Hackman |first1=D |last2=Gallop |first2=R |last3=Farah |first3=M. J. |year=2015 |title=Socioeconomics status and executive function: Developmental trajectories and mediation |journal=Developmental Science |volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=686–702 |doi=10.1111/desc.12246 |pmid=25659838}}</ref> Before a child enters a school setting, their executive function is influenced by their home environment.<ref name="Haft-2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Haft |first1=S. |last2=Hoeft |first2=F. |year=2017 |title=Poverty's impact on children's executive function: Global considerations |journal=New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development |volume=158 |pages=71}}</ref> Research demonstrates that for children who grow up in poverty, their socioeconomic circumstances severely strain their "neuro-endocrine and brain function".<ref name="Haft-2017" /> This affects a child's ability to regulate environmental stimuli, process and structure information, and plan and effectively execute tasks that involve their working memory<ref name="Hackman-2015" />—all of these are necessary cognitive facilities to successfully learn how to read and write. Living in poverty is stressful for all involved but is cognitively damaging for young children.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Wadsworth |first1=M. E. |title=Stress as a mechanism of poverty's ill effects on children |date=2012-07-01 |url=https://www.apa.org/pi/families/resources/newsletter/2012/07/stress-mechanism |work=CYF News |type=Newsletter |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717231700/https://www.apa.org/pi/families/resources/newsletter/2012/07/stress-mechanism |url-status=dead |archive-date=2019-07-17 |last2=Rienks |first2=S. L.}}</ref>

A study done by [[NICHD]] indicates that socioeconomics plays a role for children who are young when the family experiences poverty, but shows no indication of adverse effects on reading achievement or behavior for adolescents entering poverty.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=Sara |last2=Leventhal |first2=Tama |year=2014 |title=Exposure to Neighborhood Affluence and Poverty in Childhood and Adolescence and Academic Achievement and Behavior |journal=[[Applied Developmental Science]] |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=125 |doi=10.1080/10888691.2014.924355 |s2cid=144971888}} (conditions in early childhood based on 1990 U.S. Census and in middle childhood and adolescence on 2000 U.S. Census)</ref> 
The data extensively shows that children from low socioeconomic backgrounds had poorer literacy performance, especially in reading. A study done by the OECD, which included over 25 countries in Europe, found that in all studied countries, students who lived in low-income households scored lower in reading than students who lived in high-income households.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sulkunen |first=Sari |date=2013 |title=Adolescent Literacy in Europe-An Urgent Call for Action |journal=[[European Journal of Education]] |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=530 |doi=10.1111/ejed.12052 |via=ERIC}}</ref>

Parenting also affects a child's literacy. Field research was done by collecting data from families that were upper, middle, or lower class, or on welfare. The results found that, in a 100-hour week, children in upper-class households experienced an average of over 200,000 words, those in middle- and lower-class households heard about 125,000 words, and children from households on welfare were exposed to the fewest words—62,000 words. This indicates that a child from an upper-class family would be exposed to 8 million more words than a child from a family on welfare.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hart |first1=B. |last2=Risley |first2=Todd |title=The Family Catastrophe: The 30 Million Word Gap by Age 3 |url=https://www.d11.org/cms/lib/CO02201641/Centricity/Domain/547/SharedDocuments/Reading%20Support%20Documents/Article%20The%20Early%20Catastrophe%20AFT%20Spring%202003.pdf |journal=American Educator |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=4–9}}</ref> Outside of word exposure, which is essential for word acquisition, the National Center for Educational Statistics found that 41.9% of children from low-income families scored substantially lower on most reading achievements for grades 4, 8, and 12 in 2013.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knapp |first=Nancy |title=The Psychology of Reading: Theory and Applications |publisher=Guildford |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-462-52350-4 |location=New York |pages=20}}</ref>

According to a study performed by [[ANOVA]], multiple socioeconomic variables influence children, such as parental education level, parental occupation, health history, and even usage of technology within the home. With these factors in mind, their study showed that young children are especially susceptible to environmental factors, meaning socioeconomics affects them cognitively and can have adverse effects as their brains continue to develop.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}} However, another study done by the [[National Longitudinal Survey of Youth]] (NLSY) around 2012 suggesteda slightly different conclusion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lipina |first1=Sebastian |last2=Segretin |first2=Soledad |last3=Hermida |first3=Julia |last4=Prats |first4=Lucia |last5=Fracchia |first5=Carolina |last6=Camelo |first6=Jorge |last7=Colombo |first7=Jorge |year=2013 |title=Linking childhood poverty and cognition: environmental mediators of non-verbal executive control in an Argentine sample |journal=[[Developmental Science]] |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=697–707 |doi=10.1111/desc.12080 |pmid=24033575|hdl=11336/23971 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> While the study agrees that poverty negatively affects childhood literacy, some nuances are added. In both studies, children who experienced poverty scored lower in reading assessments, but the NLSY's study noted that the duration of poverty altered the literacy outcome.<ref name="Lee-2009">{{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Kyunghee |year=2009 |title=The Bidirectional Effects of Early Poverty on Children's Reading and Home Environment Scores: Associations and Ethnic Differences |journal=Social Work Research |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=79–94 |doi=10.1093/swr/33.2.79}}</ref> It found that children ages 5–11 who experienced "persistent poverty" were more adversely affected than their [[Peer group|peers]] who never experienced poverty. The study acknowledged that other factors affected these children's reading scores, particularly maternal influence. The mothers of these households were scaled based on a "home environment" score, which measured their emotional and verbal responsiveness, acceptance, and involvement with the child and organization. Households experiencing poverty tended to have lower scores, and lower scores [[correlate]]d with lower reading levels. The study also showed that the effects of poverty on child literacy differed by ethnicity, culture, and gender.<ref name="Lee-2009" />

=== Health impacts ===
Print illiteracy generally corresponds with less knowledge about modern health, hygiene, and nutritional practices, and a lack of knowledge can exacerbate a range of health issues.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Puchner |first=Laurel D. |date=1 July 1995 |title=Literacy links: Issues in the relationship between early childhood development, health, women, families, and literacy |journal=International Journal of Educational Development |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=307–319 |doi=10.1016/0738-0593(94)00041-M}}</ref> Within developing countries in particular, literacy rates also have implications for [[child mortality]]; in these contexts, children of literate mothers are 50% more likely to live past age 5 than children of illiterate mothers.<ref name="World-Literacy-Foundation-2015">{{Cite web |date=24 August 2015 |title=The Economic and Social Cost of Illiteracy: A Snapshot of Illiteracy in a Global Context |url=https://worldliteracyfoundation.org//wp-content/uploads/2015/02/WLF-FINAL-ECONOMIC-REPORT.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421083037/http://worldliteracyfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/WLF-FINAL-ECONOMIC-REPORT.pdf |archive-date=21 April 2016 |access-date=2 May 2016 |publisher=World Literacy Foundation}}</ref> Therefore, public health research has increasingly focused on the potential for literacy skills to allow women to more successfully access healthcare and thereby facilitate gains in child health.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=LeVine |first1=Robert A. |last2=Rowe |first2=Meredith L. |year=2009 |title=Maternal Literacy and Child Health in Less-Developed Countries: Evidence, Processes, and Limitations |url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:13041198 |journal=Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=340–349 |doi=10.1097/dbp.0b013e3181b0eeff |pmid=19672161 |s2cid=21609263}}</ref>

A 2014 descriptive research survey project correlates literacy levels with the socioeconomic status of women in [[Oyo State]], Nigeria. The study shows that developing literacy in the region will bring "economic empowerment and will encourage rural women to practice hygiene, which will in turn lead to the reduction of birth and death rates."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Okoji |first1=O. F. |last2=Ladeji |first2=O. O. |year=2014 |title=Influence of Adult Literacy Education on Socio-Economic Empowerment of Rural Women in Oyo State, Nigeria |journal=Gender & Behaviour |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=6016–6026}}</ref>

=== Economic impacts ===
Literacy can increase job opportunities and access to [[higher education]]. In 2009, the National Adult Literacy Agency in [[Ireland]] commissioned a [[cost–benefit analysis]] of adult literacy training, which concluded that there were economic gains for the individuals, the companies they worked for, and the [[Exchequer]], as well as the economy and the country as a whole (e.g., increased [[GDP]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Policy Brief on Adult Literacy Strategy |url=http://www.nala.ie/sites/default/files/press_release_image-2010-March/files/Policy%20Brief%20on%20Adult%20Literacy%20Strategy%202009.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723224750/http://www.nala.ie/sites/default/files/press_release_image-2010-March/files/Policy%20Brief%20on%20Adult%20Literacy%20Strategy%202009.pdf |archive-date=23 July 2011 |access-date=23 November 2011}}</ref>

[[Andrey Korotayev|Korotayev]] and coauthors found a rather significant correlation between the level of literacy in the early 19th century and successful modernization and economic breakthroughs in the late 20th century, as "literate people could be characterized by a greater innovative-activity level, which provides opportunities for modernization, development, and economic growth."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Korotayev |first1=Andrey |last2=Zinkina |first2=Julia |last3=Bogevolnov |first3=Justislav |last4=Malkov |first4=Artemy |year=2011 |title=Global Unconditional Convergence among Larger Economies after 1998? |url=http://www.sociostudies.org/journal/articles/140671/ |journal=Journal of Globalization Studies |volume=2 |issue=2}}</ref>

=== Lifespan development and promotion efforts ===
While informal learning within the home can play an important role in literacy development, gains in childhood literacy often occur in primary school settings. Continuing the global expansion of public education is thus a frequent focus of literacy advocates.<ref name="Wagner-2016" />{{rp|103–104}} These kinds of broad improvements in education often require centralized efforts by national governments; however, local literacy projects implemented by NGOs can play an important role, particularly in rural contexts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Beckman |first1=Paula J. |last2=Gallo |first2=Jessica |date=October 2015 |title=Rural Education in a Global Context |url=http://ger.mercy.edu/index.php/ger/article/view/238 |journal=Global Education Review |volume=2 |issue=4 |page=7 |issn=2325-663X |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625015250/http://ger.mercy.edu/index.php/ger/article/view/238 |archive-date=25 June 2016 |access-date=23 May 2016}}</ref>

Funding for both youth and adult literacy programs often comes from large international development organizations. [[United States Agency for International Development|USAID]], for example, steered donors like the [[Gates Foundation]] and the [[Global Partnership for Education]] toward the issue of childhood literacy by developing the Early Grade Reading Assessment.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bartlett |first1=Lesley |title=Routledge handbook of international education and development |last2=Frazier |first2=Julia |year=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-07076-9 |editor-last=McGrath |editor-first=Simon |chapter=Literacy and Development |editor-last2=Gu |editor-first2=Qing}}</ref> Advocacy groups like the [[NIACE|National Institute of Adult Continuing Education]] have frequently called upon international organizations such as UNESCO, the [[International Labour Organization]], the [[World Health Organization]], and the [[World Bank]] to prioritize support for adult women's literacy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Eldred |first1=Janine |last2=Robinson-Pant |first2=Anna |last3=Nabi |first3=Rafat |last4=Chopra |first4=Priti |last5=Nussey |first5=Charlotte |last6=Bown |first6=Lalage |date=2014-07-04 |title=Women's right to learning and literacy: Women learning literacy and empowerment |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057925.2014.911999 |journal=Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=655–675 |doi=10.1080/03057925.2014.911999 |s2cid=143260440 |issn=0305-7925 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701135029/http://www.learningandwork.org.uk/sites/niace_en/files/document-downloads/womensrighttoliteracy_web.pdf |archive-date=2016-07-01}}{{Moved resource|date=September 2023}}</ref> Efforts to increase adult literacy often encompass other development priorities as well; for example, initiatives in Ethiopia, Morocco, and India have combined adult literacy programs with vocational skills trainings in order to encourage program enrollment and address the complex needs of women (and other marginalized groups) who lack economic opportunities.<ref name="Kairies-2013">{{Cite book |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002225/222588e.pdf |title=Literacy programmes with a focus on women to reduce gender disparities: case studies from UNESCO Effective Literacy and Numeracy Practices Database |year=2013 |publisher=UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning |isbn=978-9-282-01182-9 |editor-last=Kairies |editor-first=Jan |location=Hamburg |access-date=2023-09-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712193531/http://unesdoc.unesco.org:80/images/0022/002225/222588e.pdf |archive-date=2018-07-12 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2013, the [[UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning]] published a set of case studies<ref name="Kairies-2013" /> on programs that successfully improved female literacy rates. The report features countries from a variety of regions and differing income levels, reflecting the general global consensus on "the need to empower women through the acquisition of literacy skills."<ref name="Kairies-2013" />{{rp|7}} Part of the impetus for UNESCO's focus on literacy is a broader effort to respond to globalization and "the shift towards knowledge-based societies" that it has produced.<ref>{{Cite book |last=UNESCO |url=http://www.unesco.org/education/GMR2006/full/chapt7_eng.pdf |title=Education for All Global Monitoring Report |year=2006 |chapter=Mapping the Global Literacy Challenge |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607022405/http://www.unesco.org/education/GMR2006/full/chapt7_eng.pdf |archive-date=2019-06-07}}{{Moved resource|date=September 2023}}</ref> While globalization presents emerging challenges, it also provides new opportunities. Many education and development specialists are hopeful that new [[Information and communications technology|ICTs]] will expand literacy learning opportunities for children and adults, even in countries that have historically struggled to improve literacy rates through more conventional means.<ref name="Wagner-2016" />{{rp|112}}

Although most people acquire literacy during childhood, it continues to develop throughout life;<ref name="Lechner-2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Lechner |first1=Clemens M. |last2=Gauly |first2=Britta |last3=Miyamoto |first3=Ai |last4=Wicht |first4=Alexandra |date=2021-10-01 |title=Stability and change in adults' literacy and numeracy skills: Evidence from two large-scale panel studies |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886921003652 |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=180 |pages=110990 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2021.110990 |issn=0191-8869}}</ref> literacy is not a skill that is fixed once a person leaves school but remains malleable across the entire lifespan. Among adults, both gains and losses in literacy occur in roughly equal measure, sometimes over relatively short periods of a few years.<ref name="Lechner-2021" /> Even adults with very low literacy levels can acquire literacy over time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wicht |first1=Alexandra |last2=Durda |first2=Tabea |last3=Krejcik |first3=Luise |last4=Artelt |first4=Cordula |last5=Grotlüschen |first5=Anke |last6=Rammstedt |first6=Beatrice |last7=Lechner |first7=Clemens M. |date=2021-03-12 |title=Low Literacy is not Set in Stone |url=https://www.beltz.de/fachmedien/erziehungswissenschaft/zeitschriften/zeitschrift_fuer_paedagogik/artikel/46091-low-literacy-is-not-set-in-stone.html |journal=Zeitschrift für Pädagogik |language=de |volume=67 |issue=1 |pages=109–132 |doi=10.3262/ZPB2101109 |issn=0514-2717}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Brandt |first=Deborah |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/literacy-in-american-lives/A6CD534DE3AB84520D9F269781245B4B |title=Literacy in American Lives |year=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-78315-6}}</ref> Whether a person experiences gains or losses depends on a range of factors, and one of the key factors are the demands and opportunities to engage in literary practices in the workplace, home, or other contexts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wicht |first1=Alexandra |last2=Rammstedt |first2=Beatrice |last3=Lechner |first3=Clemens M. |date=2021-01-02 |title=Predictors of Literacy Development in Adulthood: Insights from a Large-scale, Two-wave Study |journal=Scientific Studies of Reading |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=84–92 |doi=10.1080/10888438.2020.1751635 |issn=1088-8438 |s2cid=219100241}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Reder |first1=Stephen |last2=Gauly |first2=Britta |last3=Lechner |first3=Clemens |date=2020-06-01 |title=Practice makes perfect: Practice engagement theory and the development of adult literacy and numeracy proficiency |journal=International Review of Education |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=267–288 |bibcode=2020IREdu..66..267R |doi=10.1007/s11159-020-09830-5 |issn=1573-0638 |s2cid=219050030|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Literacy as a development indicator ===
[[File:Youth and adult literacy rate, 2000–2016 and projections to 2030.svg|thumb|Youth and adult literacy rate, 2000–2016 and projections to 2030]]
The [[Human Development Index]], produced by the [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP), uses education as one of its three indicators. Originally, adult literacy represented two-thirds of this education index weight. In 2010, however, the UNDP replaced the adult literacy measure with mean years of schooling. A 2011 UNDP research paper frames this change as a way to "ensure current relevance", arguing that gains in global literacy already achieved between 1970 and 2010 mean that literacy will be "unlikely to be as informative of the future."<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Jeni Klugman |last2=Francisco Rodriguez |last3=Hyung-Jin Choi |date=April 2011 |title=The HDI 2010: New Controversies, Old Critiques |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdrp_2011_01.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160207085822/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdrp_2011_01.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2016 |website=United Nations Development Programme |page=19}}</ref> Other scholars, however, have since warned against overlooking the importance of literacy as an indicator and goal for development, particularly for marginalized groups such as women and rural populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stromquist |first=Nelly |date=17 March 2016 |title=Adult Literacy and Women: A Present Account |url=http://journals.uncc.edu/index.php/DSJ/article/view/506 |journal=Dialogues in Social Justice |volume=1 |issue=1|doi=10.55370/dsj.v1i1.506 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The [[World Bank]], along with the [[UNESCO Institute for Statistics]], has developed the Learning Poverty concept and an associated measure that measures the proportion of students who are unable to read and understand a simple story by age 10. In low- and middle-income countries, 53% of children are "learning-poor", as are up to 80% of children in poor countries.<ref name="Learning-Poverty">{{Cite web |title=Learning Poverty is a combined measure of schooling and learning. |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/education/brief/what-is-learning-poverty |access-date=2021-07-01 |website=World Bank}}</ref> In fact, these new measures indicate that these high rates of illiteracy are an "early warning sign that [[Sustainable Development Goal 4|SDG 4]] for education and all related global goals are in jeopardy."<ref name="Learning-Poverty" /> Current progress in improving literacy rates is seen as much too slow to meet the SDG goals, as at the current rate, approximately 43% of children will still be learning poorly by 2030.<ref name="Learning-Poverty" />

The [[Programme for International Student Assessment]] (PISA) assesses children on reading and math skills at age 15. PISA-D encourages and facilitates PISA testing in low- and middle-income countries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=PISA for Development |url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-for-development/ |access-date=2021-07-01 |website=www.oecd.org}}</ref> In 2019, "PISA-D results reveal exceptionally low scores for participating countries. Only 23 percent of students tested achieved the minimum level of proficiency in reading, compared with 80 percent of OECD."<ref name="PISAD-2019">{{Cite web |date=30 January 2019 |title=PISA-D Reveals Exceptionally Low Learning |url=https://riseprogramme.org/blog/PISA-D_low_learning |access-date=2021-07-01 |website=RISE Programme }}</ref> Minimum proficiency requires students to "read 'simple and familiar texts and understand them literally', as well as demonstrating some ability to connect pieces of information and draw inferences."<ref name="PISAD-2019" /> 

The [[Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies]] (PIAAC) assesses literacy, [[numeracy]] and [[problem solving]] for working age population ages 16 to 65.<ref name="PIAAC"/>

=== Measuring literacy ===
In 2020, the UNESCO Institute for Statistics estimated the global literacy rate at 86.68%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above)|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/literacy-rate-adults?tab=chart |access-date=5 February 2023 |website=ourworldindata.org}}</ref> It is important to understand how literacy rates have been measured in the past as well as how they are currently being measured. Starting in 1975, the head of a household answered a simple yes-or-no question asking whether household members could read and write; in 1988, some countries started using self-reporting as well.<ref name="How-is-literacy-measured">{{Cite web |title=How is literacy measured? |url=https://ourworldindata.org/how-is-literacy-measured |access-date=2021-07-01 |website=Our World in Data|date=8 June 2018 |last1=Ortiz-Ospina |first1=Esteban |last2=Beltekian |first2=Diana }}</ref>

Self-reported data is subjective and has several limitations. First, a simple yes-or-no question does not capture the continuum of literacy. Second, self-reports are dependent on what each individual interprets "reading" and "writing" to mean. In some cultures, drawing a picture may be understood as writing one's name. Lastly, many of the surveys asked one individual to report literacy on behalf of others, which "introduces further noise, in particular when it comes to estimating literacy among women and children, since these groups are less often considered 'head of household'".<ref name="How-is-literacy-measured" />

In 2007, several countries began introducing literacy tests as a more accurate measurement of literacy rates, including Liberia, South Korea, Guyana, Kenya, and Bangladesh.<ref name="How-is-literacy-measured" /> However, in 2016, the majority of counties still reported literacy through either self-reported measures or other indirect estimates.<ref name="How-is-literacy-measured" />[[File:Students-in-grade-2-who-cant-read-a-single-word-ca-2015.png|thumb|Students in grade 2 who can't read a single word]]

These indirect measurements are potentially problematic, as many countries measure literacy based on years of schooling. In Greece, an individual is considered literate if they have finished six years of primary education, while in Paraguay, individuals are considered literate if they have completed just two years of primary school.<ref name="How-is-literacy-measured" />

However, emerging research reveals that educational attainment (e.g., years of schooling) does not perfectly correlate with literacy. Literacy tests show that in many low-income countries, a large proportion of students who have attended two years of primary school cannot read a single word. These rates are as high as 90% of second-grade students in Malawi, 85.4% in rural India, 83% in Ghana, and 64% in Uganda.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Students in grade 2 who can't read a single word, ca 2015 |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/students-in-grade-2-who-cant-read-a-single-word-ca-2015 |access-date=2021-07-01 |website=Our World in Data}}</ref> In India, over 50% of Grade 5 students have not mastered Grade 2 literacy. In Nigeria, only about 1 in 10 women who completed Grade 6 can read a single sentence in their native language.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pritchett |first1=Lant |last2=Sandefur |first2=Justin |year=2020 |title=Girls' schooling and women's literacy: schooling targets alone won't reach learning goals |journal=International Journal of Educational Development |volume=78 |pages=102242 |doi=10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102242 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This data reveals that literacy rates measured by using years of schooling as a proxy are potentially unreliable and do not reflect the true literacy rates of populations.

=== Literacy as a human right ===
Unlike medieval times, when reading and writing skills were restricted to a few elites and the clergy, literacy skills are now expected from every member of society.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Benson Mkandwire |first=Sitwe |year=2018 |title=Literacy versus Language: Exploring their Similarities and Differences |journal=Journal of Lexicography and Terminology |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=37–55}}</ref> Literacy is therefore considered a human right, essential for [[lifelong learning]] and social change, as supported by the 1996 Report of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century and the 1997 Hamburg Declaration: 
{{blockquote|Literacy, broadly conceived as the basic knowledge and skills needed by all in a rapidly changing world, is a fundamental human right. (...) There are millions, the majority of whom are women, who lack opportunities to learn or who have insufficient skills to be able to assert this right. The challenge is to enable them to do so. This will often imply the creation of preconditions for learning through awareness raising and empowerment. Literacy is also a catalyst for participation in social, cultural, political and economic activities, and for learning throughout life.<ref>{{Cite conference |year=1997 |title=Adult education: the Hamburg Declaration; the Agenda for the Future |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000116114 |conference=International Conference on Adult Education, 5th, Hamburg, Germany, 1997 |publisher=UNESCO Institute for Education |page=6 |access-date=2023-09-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=15 February 2018 |title=Fifth International Conference on Adult Education |url=http://uil.unesco.org/adult-education/confintea/fifth-conference |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211224203628/https://uil.unesco.org/adult-education/confintea/fifth-conference |archive-date=24 December 2021 |access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Belalcázar |first=Carolina |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002343/234325E.pdf |title=Mobile phones and literacy: Empowerment in Women's Hands; A Cross-Case Analysis of Nine Experiences |publisher=UNESCO |year=2015 |isbn=978-9-231-00123-9}}</ref>}}

In 2016, the European Literacy Policy Network (an association of European literacy professionals) published a document entitled the ''European Declaration of the Right to Literacy''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=European literacy policy network (ELINET) |url=http://www.eli-net.eu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230113354/https://eli-net.eu/ |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=22 March 2021}}</ref> It states that:
{{blockquote|Everyone in Europe has the right to acquire literacy. EU Member States should ensure that people of all ages, regardless of social class, religion, ethnicity, origin and gender, are provided with the necessary resources and opportunities to develop sufficient and sustainable literacy skills in order to effectively understand and use written communication be in handwritten, in print or digital form.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2016 |title=European Declaration of the Right to Literacy |url=https://elinet.pro/policy-statements/}}</ref>}}