Editing Julius Caesar (section)

=== Italy, Spain, and Greece ===
Around 10 or 11 January 49 BC,<ref>{{cite book |last=Beard |first=Mary |title=SPQR: a history of ancient Rome |date=2016 |publisher=W W Norton |isbn=978-1-84668-381-7 |page=286 |quote=The exact date is unknown.}}</ref>{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=322}} in response to the Senate's "final decree",{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=331}} Caesar [[Crossing the Rubicon|crossed the Rubicon]] – the river defining the northern boundary of Italy – with a single legion, the [[Legio XIII Gemina]], and ignited [[Caesar's Civil War|civil war]]. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian playwright [[Menander]], in Greek, "[[alea iacta est|let the die be cast]]".<ref name=Plu65>{{harvnb|Boatwright|2004|p=246}}, citing {{harvnb|Plut. ''Caes.''|loc=32.8}}. {{harvnb|Rawson|1994a|p=424|ps=&nbsp;gives the same translation.}}</ref> Pompey and many senators fled south, believing that Caesar was marching quickly for Rome.{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=336}} Caesar, after capturing communication routes to Rome, paused and opened negotiations, but they fell apart amid mutual distrust.{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|pp=340 (Caesar's pause), 342 (Caesar's offer), 343 (Pompey's counter-offer), 345 (negotiations collapse)}} Caesar responded by advancing south, seeking to capture Pompey to force a conference.{{sfn|Morstein-Marx|2021|p=347}}

Pompey withdrew to [[Brundisium]] and was able to escape to Greece, abandoning Italy in face of Caesar's superior forces and evading Caesar's pursuit.<ref>{{harvnb|Rawson|1994a|pp=424–25, 427|ps=. "[Abandoning Italy] was probably justified from a military point of view ... but Cicero was doubtless right in seeing it as politically and psychologically very damaging to abandon the capital and indeed all Italy, intending to starve and then invade it".}}</ref> Caesar stayed near Rome for about two weeks – during his stay his forceful seizure of the treasury over tribunician veto put the lie to his pro-tribunician war justifications<ref>{{harvnb|Rawson|1994a|p=430|ps=, citing: Cic. ''Att.'', 10.4.8; {{harvnb|Dio|loc=41.15–16}}; {{harvnb|App. ''BCiv.''|loc=2.41}}.}}</ref>{{sfn|Ehrhardt|1995|p=36. Caesar's "concern for the 'rights of tribunes' was too obvious a sham... what [he] actually thought about the inviolability of tribunes and their right of veto was unmistakably displayed [in the episode with Metellus]"}} – and left Lepidus in charge of Italy while he attacked Pompey's Spanish provinces.{{sfn|Boatwright|2004|p=252}} He defeated two of Pompey's legates at the [[Battle of Ilerda]] before forcing surrender of [[Marcus Terentius Varro|the third]]; his legates moved into Sicily and into [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]], though the African expedition failed.<ref>{{harvnb|Rawson|1994a|p=431|ps=, citing {{harvnb|Caes. ''BCiv.''|loc=2.17–20}}.}}</ref> Returning to Rome in the autumn, Caesar had Lepidus, as praetor, bring a law appointing Caesar [[Roman dictator|dictator]] to conduct the elections; he, along with [[Publius Servilius Isauricus]], won the following elections and would serve as consuls for 48&nbsp;BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Rawson|1994a|p=431|ps=. He also passed laws removing civil disabilities from the descendants of those [[Sulla's proscriptions|proscribed by Sulla]] and recalling all exiles on specious claims of unfair trials.}}</ref> Resigning the dictatorship after eleven days,<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|2021|p=309|ps=, citing, among others, {{harvnb|Caes. ''BCiv.''|loc=3.1.1}}; {{harvnb|Plut. ''Caes.''|loc=37.1–2}}; {{harvnb|App. ''BCiv.''|loc=2.48}}; {{harvnb|Dio|loc=41.36.1–4}}. He had no {{lang|la|[[magister equitum]]}}.}}</ref> Caesar then left Italy for Greece to stop Pompey's preparations, arriving in force in early 48&nbsp;BC.{{sfnm|Rawson|1994a|1p=432|Boatwright|2004|2p=252}}

Caesar [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC)|besieged Pompey at Dyrrhachium]], but Pompey was able to break out and force Caesar's forces to flee. Following Pompey southeast into Greece and to save one of his legates, he engaged and decisively defeated Pompey [[Battle of Pharsalus|at Pharsalus]] on 9 August 48&nbsp;BC. Pompey then fled for Egypt; Cato fled for Africa; others, like Cicero and [[Marcus Junius Brutus]], begged for Caesar's pardon.{{sfnm |Rawson|1994a|1p=433 |Boatwright|2004|2pp=252–53 |Plut. ''Caes.''|3loc=42–45}}