Editing Indian religions (section)

=== Shramanic period (c. 800–200 BCE) ===
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| caption1 = A statue of [[Gautama Buddha]] from [[Sarnath]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India, 4th century CE.
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| caption2 = The idol of [[Mahavira]], the 24th and last [[Tirthankara]] of [[Jainism]].
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During the time of the shramanic reform movements "many elements of the Vedic religion were lost".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=38}} According to Michaels, "it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=38}}

==== Late Vedic period – Brahmanas and Upanishads – Vedanta (850–500 BCE) ====
{{Main|Brahmanas|Upanishads|Vedanta}}

The late Vedic period (9th to 6th centuries BCE) marks the beginning of the Upanisadic or [[Vedantic]] period.<ref group=web name="Indiana10">[http://www.indiana.edu/~isp/cd_rom/mod_10/mod_10_x.htm Indiana University "India Studies Program"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090801152905/http://www.indiana.edu/~isp/cd_rom/mod_10/mod_10_x.htm |date=1 August 2009 }} ''Passage to India, Module 10''.</ref>{{refn|group=note|"Upanishads came to be composed already in the ninth and eighth century B.C.E. and continued to be composed well into the first centuries of the Common Era. The [[Brahmana]]s and [[Aranyaka]]s are somewhat older, reaching back to the eleventh and even twelfth century BCE."<ref group=web name="Indiana10" />}}{{sfn|Deussen|1966|p={{page needed|date=March 2021}}}}{{refn|group=note|Deussen: "these treatises are not the work of a single genius, but the total philosophical product of an entire epoch which extends [from] approximately 1000 or 800 BC, to c. 500 BCE, but which is prolonged in its offshoots far beyond this last limit of time."{{sfn|Deussen |1966|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=B0QzAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA51 51]}}}} This period heralded the beginning of much of what became classical Hinduism, with the composition of the [[Upanishads]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Neusner|first=Jacob|year=2009|title=World Religions in America: An Introduction |isbn=978-0-664-23320-4 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=34vGv_HDGG8C&pg=PA183 |page=183}}</ref> later the [[Sanskrit epics]], still later followed by the [[Puranas]].

Upanishads form the speculative-philosophical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as [[Vedanta]] (conclusion of the [[Vedas]]).<ref>{{citation|last1=Melton|first1=J. Gordon|last2=Baumann|first2=Martin |title=Religions of the World, Second Edition: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA1324|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-204-3|page=1324}}</ref> The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.<ref>{{citation |title=History of Philosophy Eastern and Western|first=T.M.P|last=Mahadevan|editor=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |year=1956|publisher=George Allen & Unwin Ltd|page=57}}</ref>

Scholars believe that [[Parsva]], the 23rd Jain ''tirthankara'' lived during this period in the 9th century BCE.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1999|p=16}}

==== Rise of Shramanic tradition (7th to 5th centuries BCE) ====
{{See also|Shramana|Magadha}}
[[File:Buddha state at Dargeeling.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Buddha statue at Darjeeling]]

[[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]] belong to the śramaṇa traditions. These religions rose into prominence in 700–500 BCE{{Sfn|Jain|2008|p=210}}{{sfn|Svarghese|2008|p=259-60}}{{sfn|Mallinson|2007|pp=17–18, 32–33}} in the [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] kingdom., reflecting "the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India",{{sfn|Zimmer|1989|p=217}} and were responsible for the related concepts of ''[[saṃsāra]]'' (the cycle of birth and death) and ''[[moksha]]'' (liberation from that cycle).{{sfn|Flood|Olivelle|2003|p=273–274}}{{refn|group=note|Gavin Flood and [[Patrick Olivelle]]: "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterize later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history.... Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara – the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana – the goal of human existence...."{{sfn|Flood|Olivelle|2003|p=273–274}}}}

The shramana movements challenged the orthodoxy of the rituals.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA82 82]}} The shramanas were wandering ascetics distinct from Vedism.<ref name="ReferenceA">Kalghatgi, T. G. 1988 In: Study of Jainism, Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur</ref><ref name="Cromwell">S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, ''Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism'', Philosophy East and West (1972)</ref>{{refn|group=note|Cromwell Crwaford: "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic (self reliant) culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."<ref name="Cromwell" />}}<ref name="Masih">Y. Masih (2000). In: ''A Comparative Study of Religions''. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 18. {{ISBN|81-208-0815-0}}.</ref>{{refn|group=note|Masih: "There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed to much to [sic] the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times."<ref name="Masih" />}}<ref name="Jaini">Padmanabh S. Jaini, (1979), The Jaina Path to Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p. 169</ref>{{refn|group=note |Padmanabh S. Jaini: "Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism".<ref name="Jaini" />}} Mahavira, proponent of Jainism, and [[Buddha]] (c. 563-483), founder of Buddhism were the most prominent icons of this movement.

Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of [[samsara]], and the concept of liberation.{{sfn|Flood|Olivelle|2003|p=273–274}}{{refn|group=note|Flood: "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterise later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history.... Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara – the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana – the goal of human existence...."{{sfn|Flood|Olivelle|2003|p=273–274}}}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p={{page needed|date=March 2021}}}}{{refn|group=note|Flood: "The origin and doctrine of Karma and Samsara are obscure. These concepts were certainly circulating among sramanas, and Jainism and Buddhism developed specific and sophisticated ideas about the process of transmigration. It is very possible that the karmas and reincarnation entered the mainstream brahaminical thought from the sramana or the renouncer traditions."{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=86}}}}{{sfn|Jaini|2001|p={{page needed|date=March 2021}}}}{{refn|group=note|Padmanabh S. Jaini: "Yajnavalkya's reluctance and manner in expounding the doctrine of karma in the assembly of Janaka (a reluctance not shown on any other occasion) can perhaps be explained by the assumption that it was, like that of the transmigration of soul, of non-brahmanical origin. In view of the fact that this doctrine is emblazoned on almost every page of sramana scriptures, it is highly probable that it was derived from them."{{sfn|Jaini|2001|p=51}}}}{{refn|group=note|Jeffrey Brodd and Gregory Sobolewski: "Jainism shares many of the basic doctrines of Hinduism and Buddhism."<ref>P. 93 ''World Religions'' By Jeffrey Brodd, Gregory Sobolewski.</ref>}} The influence of Upanishads on Buddhism has been a subject of debate among scholars. While [[Radhakrishnan]], [[Hermann Oldenberg|Oldenberg]] and [[Karl Eugen Neumann|Neumann]] were convinced of Upanishadic influence on the Buddhist canon, [[Charles Eliot (diplomat)|Eliot]] and [[Edward J. Thomas|Thomas]] highlighted the points where Buddhism was opposed to Upanishads.<ref>{{citation |last=Pratt |first=James Bissett |title=The Pilgrimage of Buddhism and a Buddhist Pilgrimage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cLXwU9e6D4sC&pg=PA90 |year=1996 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-1196-2 |page=90 |access-date=7 November 2015 |archive-date=23 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223183102/https://books.google.com/books?id=cLXwU9e6D4sC&pg=PA90#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Buddhism may have been influenced by some Upanishadic ideas, it however discarded their orthodox tendencies.<ref>{{citation|last=Upadhyaya|first=Kashi Nath |year=1998 |title=Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgītā |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JBbznHuPrTYC&pg=PA103 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0880-5|pages=103–104}}</ref> In Buddhist texts Buddha is presented as rejecting avenues of salvation as "pernicious views".<ref>Hajime Nakamura, ''A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One.'' Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1990, page 139.</ref>

===== Jainism =====
{{Main|Mahavira|Jainism|Timeline of Jainism|Jain community}}

Jainism was established by a lineage of 24 enlightened beings culminating with [[Parshvanatha]] (9th century BCE) and [[Mahavira]] (6th century BCE).<ref name="Oldmeadow">[[Harry Oldmeadow]] (2007) Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West, [[World Wisdom]], Inc. {{ISBN|1-933316-22-5}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Oldmeadow: "Over time, apparent misunderstandings have arisen over the origins of Jainism and relationship with its sister religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. There has been an ongoing debate between Jainism and Vedic Hinduism as to which revelation preceded the other. What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with Vedic Hinduism known as [[śramaṇa|Sramana Dharma]]. Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain and Buddhist traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins."<ref name="Oldmeadow" /> Page 141}}

The 24th [[Tirthankara]] of Jainism, Mahavira, stressed five vows, including ''[[Ahimsa in Jainism|ahimsa]]'' (non-violence), ''[[satya]]'' (truthfulness), ''[[asteya]]'' (non-stealing), and ''[[aparigraha]]'' (non-attachment). As per Jain tradition, the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time. The scholars believe [[Parshva]], accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the [[shramana]] movement.<ref name="Fisher">Mary Pat Fisher (1997). [https://archive.org/details/livingreligions00fish_0 ''Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths''], 3rd ed. I. B. Tauris: London. {{ISBN|1-86064-148-2}}. {{OCLC|41293467}}.</ref>{{refn|group=note|Fisher: "The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira."<ref name="Fisher" />|p=[https://archive.org/details/livingreligions00fish_0/mode/2up?q=Mahavira p. 115].}}

===== Buddhism =====
{{Main|Gautama Buddha|Buddhism|Pre-sectarian Buddhism|History of Buddhism|History of Buddhism in India}}
[[File:Buddhist Monks performing traditional Sand mandala made from coloured sand.jpg|thumb|Buddhist Monks creating a traditional sand mandala made from coloured sand]]

Buddhism was historically founded by [[Siddhartha Gautama]], a [[Kshatriya]] prince-turned-ascetic,<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica 1997 a829">{{cite web | title=Life of Gautama Buddha and the origin of Buddhism | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=July 1, 1997 | url=https://www.britannica.com/summary/Buddha-founder-of-Buddhism | access-date=February 1, 2024 | archive-date=1 February 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201164308/https://www.britannica.com/summary/Buddha-founder-of-Buddhism | url-status=live }}</ref> and was spread beyond India through missionaries.<ref name="Learman_2005">{{cite book |last=Learman L.(Ed.) |first=Linda |date=2005 |title=Buddhist Missionaries in the Era of Globalization |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvvn4jw |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |page= |jstor=j.ctvvn4jw |isbn=978-0-8248-2810-3 |access-date=1 February 2024 |archive-date=1 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201165225/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvvn4jw |url-status=live }}</ref> It later experienced a [[decline of Buddhism in India|decline]] in India, but survived in [[Nepal]]<ref name="Jain 2011 p955">{{cite web | last=Jain | first=Pankaj | title=Buddhism: Origin, Spread And Decline | website=HuffPost | date=September 1, 2011 | url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/buddhism-origin-spread-decline_b_939679 | access-date=February 1, 2024 | archive-date=1 February 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201165748/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/buddhism-origin-spread-decline_b_939679 | url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Sri Lanka]], and remains more widespread in [[Buddhism in Southeast Asia|Southeast]] and [[East Asian Buddhism|East Asia]].<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica 1998 d788">{{cite web | title=Buddhism | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=September 28, 1998 | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buddhism/The-demise-of-Buddhism-in-India | access-date=February 1, 2024 | archive-date=1 February 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201165748/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buddhism/The-demise-of-Buddhism-in-India | url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Gautama Buddha]], who was called an "awakened one" ([[Buddhahood|Buddha]]), was born into the [[Shakya]] clan living at Kapilavastu and Lumbini in what is now southern Nepal. The Buddha was born at Lumbini, as emperor [[Ashoka]]'s Lumbini pillar records, just before the kingdom of [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] (which traditionally is said to have lasted from c. 546–324 BCE) rose to power.  The Shakyas claimed [[Angiras]]a and [[Gautama Maharishi]] lineage,<ref>''The Life of Buddha as Legend and History'', by [[Edward Joseph Thomas]]</ref> via descent from the royal lineage of Ayodhya.

Buddhism emphasises enlightenment (nibbana, nirvana) and liberation from the rounds of rebirth. This objective is pursued through two schools, Theravada, the Way of the Elders (practiced in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, SE Asia, etc.)<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Keown |first1=Damien |title=A dictionary of Buddhism |last2=Hodge |first2=Stephen |last3=Jones |first3=Charles |last4=Tinti |first4=Paola |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-19-860560-7 |edition=1. publ |location=Oxford |chapter=Theravāda}}</ref> and Mahayana, the Greater Way (practiced in Tibet, China, Japan, etc.).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Keown |first1=Damien |title=A dictionary of Buddhism |last2=Hodge |first2=Stephen |last3=Jones |first3=Charles |last4=Tinti |first4=Paola |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-19-860560-7 |edition=1. publ |location=Oxford |chapter=Mahāyāna}}</ref> There may be some differences in the practice between the two schools in reaching the objective.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

==== Spread of Jainism and Buddhism (500–200 BCE) ====
{{Main|Maurya Empire|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism}}
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Both Jainism and Buddhism spread throughout India during the period of the [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] empire.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

Buddhism flourished during the reign of Ashoka of the [[Maurya Empire]], who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.<ref name="Heehs_2002_106">{{harvnb|Heehs|2002|p=106}}.</ref>

Jainism began its golden period during the reign of Emperor [[Kharavela]] of [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] in the 2nd century BCE due to his significant patronage of the religion. His reign is considered a period of growth and influence for the religion, although Jainism had flourished for centuries before and continued to develop in prominence after his time.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kharavela – The Great Philanthropic Emperor |url=https://magazines.odisha.gov.in/orissareview/apr-2007/engpdf/page40-41.pdf |access-date=10 March 2024 |archive-date=10 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240310235038/https://magazines.odisha.gov.in/orissareview/apr-2007/engpdf/page40-41.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Dravidian culture ====
{{See also|South India|Dravidian peoples|Dravidian folk religion|Dravidian languages}}

The early Dravidian religion constituted of non-[[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic]] form of [[Hinduism]] in that they were either historically or are at present [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Āgamic]]. The Agamas are non-[[vedic]] in origin<ref>{{cite book |editor=Mudumby Narasimhachary |year=1976 |title=Āgamaprāmāṇya of Yāmunācārya |series=Issue 160 of Gaekwad's Oriental Series |publisher=Oriental Institute, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda}}</ref> and have been dated either as post-vedic texts.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tripath |first=S.M. |year=2001 |title=Psycho-Religious Studies Of Man, Mind And Nature |publisher=Global Vision Publishing House |isbn=978-81-87746-04-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zWFM_SaX24AC&pg=PA54 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=7 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007192931/https://books.google.com/books?id=zWFM_SaX24AC&pg=PA54 |url-status=live }}{{page needed|date=March 2021}}</ref> or as pre-vedic oral compositions.<ref>{{cite web |last=Nagalingam |first=Pathmarajah |year=2009 |title=Chapter 3 |work=The Religion of the Agamas |publisher=Siddhanta Publications |url=http://www.siddha.com.my/forum/religionoftheagamas/chapter3.html |access-date=27 July 2015 |archive-date=19 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019035505/http://www.siddha.com.my/forum/religionoftheagamas/chapter3.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The ''Agamas'' are a collection of [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and later [[Sanskrit]] [[scriptures]] chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of ''[[murti]]'', worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.<ref>{{cite book |last=Grimes |first=John A. |year=1996 |title=A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3068-2 |lccn=96012383 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eP5p0ev3nJEC}}{{page needed|date=March 2021}}</ref> The worship of [[tutelary deity]], sacred flora and fauna in Hinduism is also recognized as a survival of the pre-Vedic Dravidian religion.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Modern review: Volume 28|year=1920 |publisher=Prabasi Press}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021}}</ref>

[[File:WLA lacma 12th century Maharishi Agastya.jpg|upright|thumb|Saga Agastya, father of Tamil literature]]

Ancient Tamil grammatical works [[Tolkappiyam]], the ten anthologies [[Pattuppāṭṭu]], the eight anthologies [[Eṭṭuttokai]] also sheds light on early religion of ancient Dravidians. ''[[Murugan|Seyon]]'' was glorified as ''the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent,'' as ''the favored god of the Tamils.''<ref name="Kanchan Sinha 1979">Kanchan Sinha, Kartikeya in Indian art and literature, Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan (1979).</ref> [[Shiva|Sivan]] was also seen as the supreme God.<ref name="Kanchan Sinha 1979" /> Early iconography of [[Murugan|Seyyon]]<ref>{{cite web |last=Mahadevan |first=Iravatham |title=A Note on the Muruku Sign of the Indus Script in light of the Mayiladuthurai Stone Axe Discovery |date=6 May 2006 |url=http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060904034700/http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html |archive-date=4 September 2006 |website=harappa.com}}</ref> and Sivan<ref name="Ranbir Vohra 2000 15">{{cite book |title=The Making of India: A Historical Survey |author=Ranbir Vohra |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |year=2000 |page=15}}</ref><ref name="Grigorii Maksimovich Bongard-Levin 1985 45">{{cite book |title=Ancient Indian Civilization |author=Grigorii Maksimovich Bongard-Levin |publisher=Arnold-Heinemann |year=1985 |page=45}}</ref><ref name="Steven Rosen, Graham M. Schweig 2006 45">{{cite book |title=Essential Hinduism |author1=Steven Rosen |author2=Graham M. Schweig |year=2006 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |page=45}}</ref>{{sfn|Singh|1989}}<ref>Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark. ''Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization''. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref> and their association with native flora and fauna goes back to Indus Valley Civilization.<ref name="Ranbir Vohra 2000 15" /><ref name="Steven Rosen, Graham M. Schweig 2006 45" />{{sfn|Basham|1967|pp=11–14}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Plants of life, plants of death |author=Frederick J. Simoons |year=1998 |page=363}}</ref>{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=29, Figure 1: Drawing of the seal}}<ref name="Grigorii Maksimovich Bongard-Levin 1985 45" /><ref>{{cite book |title=India: A History |publisher=Grove Press |author=John Keay|page=14}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021}}</ref> The [[Sangam landscape]] was classified into five categories, ''thinais'', based on the mood, the season and the land. Tolkappiyam, mentions that each of these ''thinai'' had an associated deity such Seyyon in ''Kurinji''-the hills, [[Vishnu|Thirumaal]] in ''Mullai''-the forests, and [[Durga|Kotravai]] in ''Marutham''-the plains, and [[Indra|Wanji-ko]] in the ''Neithal''-the coasts and the seas. Other gods mentioned were [[Krishna|Mayyon]] and [[Balaram|Vaali]] who were all assimilated into Hinduism over time. Dravidian linguistic influence<ref name="Q. Adams, 1997 p.308">J.P. Mallory and D. Q. Adams, ''Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture'' (1997), p.308.</ref> on early Vedic religion is evident, many of these features are already present in the oldest known [[Indo-Aryan language]], the language of the ''[[Rigveda]]'' (c. 1500 BCE),<ref name="Q. Adams, 1997 p.308" /> which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian.<ref>K. Zvelebil, ''Dravidian Linguistics: an Introduction'', (Pondicherry: Pondicherry Institute of Linguistics and Culture 1990), p. 81.</ref>{{Sfn|Krishnamurti|2003|p=6}} This represents an early religious and cultural fusion{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}}{{refn|group=note|name=Lockard|Lockard: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Aryan]] and [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis."{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}} Lockard: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}}} or synthesis{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=12}} between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, which became more evident over time with sacred iconography, traditions, philosophy, flora, and fauna that went on to influence Hinduism, Buddhism, Charvaka, Sramana, and Jainism.{{sfn|Tiwari|2002|p=v}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}{{sfn|Zimmer|1951|p=218-219}}{{sfn|Larson|1995|p=81}}

[[File:01AnnamalaiyarTemple&Thiruvannamalai&TamilNadu&AerialViewfromVirupakshaCave.jpg|thumb|left|Typical layout of Dravidian architecture which evolved from ''koyil'' as king's residence.]]
Throughout [[Tamilakam]], a king was considered to be divine by nature and possessed religious significance.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harman |first=William P. |title=The sacred marriage of a Hindu goddess |year=1992 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |page=6}}</ref> The king was 'the representative of God on earth' and lived in a "koyil", which means the "residence of a god". The Modern Tamil word for temple is [[koil]]. Titual worship was also given to kings.<ref>{{cite book |last=Anand |first=Mulk Raj |title=Splendours of Tamil Nadu |year=1980 |publisher=Marg Publications |url=https://www.google.co.uk/search?tbm=bks&q=The+king+is+%27the+representative+of+God+on+earth%27+and+lives+in+a+palace+called+%27+Koyil%27%2C+which+means+the+residence+of+God.+The+ritual+worship+of+God |access-date=21 July 2022 |archive-date=21 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721183333/https://www.google.co.uk/search?tbm=bks&q=The+king+is+%27the+representative+of+God+on+earth%27+and+lives+in+a+palace+called+%27+Koyil%27%2C+which+means+the+residence+of+God.+The+ritual+worship+of+God |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Chopra |first=Pran Nath |title=History of South India |year=1979 |publisher=S. Chand |url=}}</ref> Modern words for god like "kō" ("king"), "iṟai" ("emperor"), and "āṇḍavar" ("conqueror") now primarily refer to gods. These elements were incorporated later into Hinduism like the legendary marriage of [[Shiva]] to Queen Mīnātchi who ruled [[Madurai]] or [[Legendary early Chola kings#Sangam period Chola rulers|Wanji-ko]], a god who later merged into [[Indra]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Bate |first=Bernard |title=Tamil oratory and the Dravidian aesthetic: democratic practice in south India |year=2009 |publisher=Columbia University Press}}</ref> [[Tolkappiyar]] refers to the [[Three Crowned Kings]] as the "Three Glorified by Heaven".<ref>{{cite book |last=A. Kiruṭṭin̲an̲ |title=Tamil culture: religion, culture, and literature |year=2000 |publisher=Bharatiya Kala Prakashan |page=17}}</ref> In the Dravidian-speaking South, the concept of divine kingship led to the assumption of major roles by state and temple.<ref>{{cite book |last=Embree |first=Ainslie Thomas |author-link=Ainslie Embree |title=Encyclopedia of Asian history: Volume 1 |year=1988 |publisher=Scribner |isbn=978-0-684-18898-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0000embr |url-access=registration}}</ref>

The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. This mother goddess was conceived as a virgin, one who has given birth to all and one, typically associated with [[history of Shaktism|Shaktism]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Thiruchandran |first=Selvy |title=Ideology, caste, class, and gender |year=1997 |publisher=Vikas Pub. House}}</ref> The temples of the Sangam days, mainly of Madurai, seem to have had priestesses to the deity, which also appear predominantly a goddess.<ref>{{cite book |last=Manickam |first=Valliappa Subramaniam |title=A glimpse of Tamilology |year=1968 |publisher=Academy of Tamil Scholars of Tamil Nadu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bIQOAAAAYAAJ&q=sangam+priestess |page=75}}</ref> In the Sangam literature, there is an elaborate description of the rites performed by the Kurava priestess in the shrine Palamutircholai.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lal |first=Mohan |year=2006 |title=The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature, Volume 5 (Sasay To Zorgot) |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=81-260-1221-8 |page=4396}}</ref> Among the early Dravidians the practice of erecting memorial stones ''Natukal'' or ''[[Hero Stone]]'' had appeared, and it continued for quite a long time after the Sangam age, down to about 16th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shashi |first=S. S. |title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh: Volume 100 |year=1996 |publisher=Anmol Publications}}</ref> It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory.<ref>{{cite book |last=Subramanium |first=N. |year=1980 |title=Śaṅgam polity: the administration and social life of the Śaṅgam Tamils |publisher=Ennes Publications}}</ref>