Editing Hongwu Emperor (section)

===Central government===
[[File:Říše Ming - obyvatelstvo 1393.svg|thumb|Ming China during the Hongwu Emperor's reign. According to the 1393 census, the population of the provinces was recorded in millions, with a total of 60.5 million inhabitants in China.{{sfnp|Hucker|1988|p=14}}]]
Upon ascending to the throne, the Hongwu Emperor appointed his wife as empress and his eldest son, Zhu Biao, as his heir.{{sfnp|Langlois|1988|p=111}} He surrounded himself with a group of military and civilian figures, but the civil officials never attained the same level of prestige and influence as the military.{{sfnp|Langlois|1988|p=107}} In 1367, he granted the title of duke (''gong'') to three of his closest collaborators—generals [[Xu Da]] and [[Chang Yuchun]], and official [[Li Shanchang]].{{sfnp|Langlois|1988|p=107}} After the establishment of the Ming dynasty, he also bestowed ranks and titles upon a wider circle of loyal generals.{{efn|In 1370, 34 distinguished generals were appointed as dukes and marquises (''hou''). Out of these, 6 dukes and 14 marquises were among the original 24 companions of the Hongwu Emperor, 5 marquises joined in 1355 during the crossing of the Yangtze River (they belonged to the rebels from Lake Chao who laid the foundation for Zhu's fleet), and 9 marquises were former enemy commanders who surrendered. By 1380, the emperor had appointed an additional 14 marquises from the aforementioned groups. They were all granted land and income from the state treasury, but not as fiefs.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1988|p=105}}}} These military leaders were chosen based on their abilities, but their positions were often inherited by their sons.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1988|p=104}} As a result, the generals became the dominant ruling class, surpassing the bureaucracy in power and influence. The officials had little political autonomy and simply carried out the emperor's orders and requests.{{sfnp|Huang|1998|p=106}} This system mirrored the one established during the Yuan dynasty, with the ruling class of Mongols and [[Semu]] being replaced by families of distinguished military commanders.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=147}} These families were often connected through kinship ties with each other and with the imperial family.{{sfnp|Chan|2007|p=53}}

The administrative structure of the Ming dynasty was modeled after the Yuan model. The civil administration was led by the [[Zhongshu Sheng|Central Secretariat]], headed by two Grand Councilors who were informally known as Prime Ministers. This Secretariat was responsible for six ministries: [[Ministry of Personnel|Personnel]], [[Ministry of Revenue (imperial China)|Revenue]], [[Ministry of Rites|Rites]], [[Ministry of War (imperial China)|War]], [[Ministry of Justice (imperial China)|Justice]], and [[Ministry of Works (imperial China)|(Public) Works]]. The Censorate oversaw the administration, while the Chief Military Commission was in charge of the army, but under later emperors, the civil administration, which was the core of the government, became primarily focused on supporting the army financially and logistically.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=11}} Initially, the provinces were under the control of the general, with the civil authorities also reporting to them.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1988|p=105}} In the 1370s, the military's influence decreased as ministers were appointed to leadership positions in the provinces.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1988|p=105}} Regional military commanders were then responsible for managing the affairs of hereditary soldiers in the ''Weisuo'' system.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1988|p=105}}

In the 1370s, the ''Weisuo'' system, which was introduced in 1364, became stabilized. Soldiers under this system were obligated hereditarily to serve, with each family required to provide one member for military service in each generation.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1988|p=104}} The army was self-sufficient thanks to the production of these hereditary soldiers.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1988|p=104}} By 1393, the empire's armed forces consisted of 326 guards and 65 battalions,{{sfnp|Dreyer|1988|p=104}} but after 1368, the army may have been larger than necessary, as the government feared the consequences of widespread demobilization.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1988|p=104}}

In order to limit the influence of eunuchs in the palace, the emperor initially restricted their number to 100, but he later allowed their number to increase to 400, with the condition that they were not allowed to learn to read, write, or interfere in politics.{{sfnp|Tsai|1996|p=13}}

The state administration was reformed based on Confucian principles. In February 1371, the emperor made the decision to hold provincial and county examinations every three years, with the provincial examinations already taking place in March,{{sfnp|Langlois|1988|p=127}} but in 1377, he had already cancelled the [[Imperial examination|civil service examinations]] due to their lack of connection to the quality of the graduates.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|p=192}}{{sfnp|Hucker|1958|p=13}} Despite his support for Confucianism, the emperor had a deep distrust for the official class and did not hesitate to severely punish them for any wrongdoing.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|pp=191–192}} After the resumption of examinations in 1384,{{sfnp|Hucker|1958|p=13}} he even went as far as executing the chief examiner when it was revealed that he had only awarded the ''jinshi'' degree to applicants from the south.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|p=192}}

Every three years, provincial examinations were held, and those who passed were awarded the title of ''[[juren]]''. This title was sufficient for starting an official career in the early Ming period, and also qualified individuals for teaching positions in local schools until the end of the dynasty.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=135}} Following the provincial examinations, metropolitan examinations were held. Upon passing, candidates advanced to the palace examinations, where their work was read by the emperor himself. Successful candidates were awarded the rank of ''[[jinshi]]'', with a total of 871 individuals granted it during the Hongwu period.{{efn|In 1371, 120 people were granted. In 1385, 472 were awarded, which was an exceptionally high number. This was followed by 97 in 1388, 31 in 1391, 100 in 1394, and 51 in 1397.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=135}}}}

There were fewer than 8,000 civil servants,{{sfnp|Huang|1998|p=107}} with half of them in lower grades (eighth and ninth), not including the approximately 5,000 teachers in government schools.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=135}} Unlike later years in the early Ming period, there were not enough candidates obtained through examinations, and positions were often filled based on recommendations and personal connections.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=135}} The bureaucratic system was still in its early stages, and the introduction of examinations primarily had symbolic significance as a declaration of allegiance to Confucianism.

Only qualified Confucian-educated officials held management positions in the state administration, while routine tasks and paperwork were handled by rank-and-file employees and helpers from the local population. In fact, there were at least four times more of these employees than officials.{{sfnp|Hucker|1958|p=18}}

Salaries for officials and incomes for members of the imperial family were approximately one-fifth of what they had been under previous dynasties. Even officials were paid in paper money or forced to accept paintings, [[calligraphy]], or pepper as payment. Additionally, officials and officers, as well as their families and relatives, were prohibited from trading or lending money.{{sfnp|Li|2010|pp=30–31}} This restriction posed a significant challenge for lower-level officials, as they often struggled to make a living, especially if they were serving far from their secure relatives.{{sfnp|Li|2010|p=32}}