Editing Hawaii (section)

==History==
{{main|History of Hawaii}}
{{HI history}}
Hawai{{okina}}i is one of two U.S. states, along with [[Texas]], that were internationally recognized sovereign nations before becoming U.S. states. The [[Kingdom of Hawaii|Kingdom of Hawai{{okina}}i]] was sovereign from 1810 until 1893, when resident American and European capitalists and landholders [[Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii|overthrew the monarchy]]. Hawai{{okina}}i was an independent republic from 1894 until August 12, 1898, when it officially became a U.S. territory. Hawai{{okina}}i was admitted as a U.S. state on August 21, 1959.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.netstate.com/states/government/hi_government.htm |title=Hawaii State Government |publisher=Netstate.com |access-date=November 5, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019022737/http://netstate.com/states/government/hi_government.htm |archive-date=October 19, 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===First human settlement – Ancient Hawai{{okina}}i (1000–1778)===
{{Main|Ancient Hawaii}}
The date of the human discovery and habitation of the Hawaiian Islands is the subject of academic debate.<ref>{{cite book | first = Patrick Vinton | last = Kirch | author-link = Patrick Vinton Kirch | title = The Evolution of the Polynesian Chiefdoms | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1989 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/evolutionofpolyn0000kirc/page/77 77–79] | isbn = 978-0-521-27316-9 | url = https://archive.org/details/evolutionofpolyn0000kirc/page/77 }}</ref> Early archaeological studies suggested that Polynesian explorers from the [[Marquesas Islands]] or [[Society Islands]] may have arrived as early as the 3rd century CE.<ref>Van, James (2010). ''Ancient Sites of Oahu: A Guide to Archaeological Places of Interest''. Bishop Museum Pr. Page 5. {{ISBN|978-1581780956}}.</ref> Some archaeologists and historians think it was a later wave of immigrants from [[Tahiti]] around 1100 CE who introduced a new line of high chiefs, the [[Kapu (Hawaiian culture)|kapu]] system, the practice of human sacrifice, and the building of ''[[heiau]]''.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|date=May 18, 2017|title=Hawaii History & Civilization Growth {{!}} Timelines, Facts, Info|url=https://www.tourmaui.com/hawaii-history-timelines/|access-date=May 19, 2021|website=Valley Isle Excursions}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Buck |first=Peter H. |title=Vikings of the Sunrise |publisher=Frederick A. Stokes Company |year=1938 |location=New York |pages=257–259}}</ref> This later immigration is detailed in [[Hawaiian mythology]] (''mo{{okina}}olelo'') about [[Pa'ao|Pa{{okina}}ao]]. Other authors say there is no archaeological or linguistic evidence of a later influx of Tahitian settlers and that Pa{{okina}}ao must be regarded as a myth.<ref name="auto"/> More recent archaeological studies further suggest that the first settlement of Hawaii was not until around 900–1200 CE.<ref name=":2"/>

The islands' history is marked by a slow, steady growth in population and the size of the [[chiefdoms]], which grew to encompass whole islands. Local chiefs, called [[Ali'i|ali{{okina}}i]], ruled their settlements, and launched wars to extend their influence and defend their communities from predatory rivals. Ancient Hawai{{okina}}i was a [[Makaainana|caste]]-based society, much like that of Hindus in India.<ref>{{cite book | first = Barbara A. | last = West | year = 2009 | url = {{google books |plainurl=y|id=pCiNqFj3MQsC|page=270}} | title = Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania | publisher = Infobase Publishing | page = 270 | isbn = 978-1438119137}}</ref> Population growth was facilitated by ecological and agricultural practices that combined upland agriculture (''manuka''), ocean fishing (''makai''), [[Ancient Hawaiian aquaculture|fishponds]] and gardening systems. These systems were upheld by spiritual and religious beliefs, like the ''lokahi'', that linked cultural continuity with the health of the natural world.<ref name="LaDuke 1999"/> According to Hawaiian scholar [[Mililani Trask]], the ''lokahi'' symbolizes the "greatest of the traditions, values, and practices of our people&nbsp;... There are three points in the triangle—the Creator, ''Akua''; the peoples of the earth, ''Kanaka Maoli''; and the land, the ''{{okina}}aina''. These three things all have a reciprocal relationship."<ref name="LaDuke 1999"/><ref name="People of the seventh fire">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/34984146 |title=People of the seventh fire |date=1996 |publisher=Akwe:kon Press |others=Dagmar Seely |isbn=1-881178-02-1 |location=Ithaca, NY |oclc=34984146}}</ref>
{{#section:History of Hawaii|Pre1778}}

===First recorded contact ===
[[File:Tereoboo, King of Owyhee, bringing presents to Captain Cook by John Webber.jpg|thumb|''[[Kalaniʻōpuʻu|Tereoboo]], King of Owyhee, bringing presents to [[James Cook|Captain Cook]]'' by [[John Webber]] (drawn in 1779, published in 1784)|alt=Drawing of single-masted sailboat with one spinnaker-shaped sail, carrying dozens of men, accompanied by at least four other canoes]]
In January 1778, British Captain [[James Cook]] encountered the Hawaiian Islands serendipitously while crossing the Pacific during his [[Third voyage of James Cook|third voyage of exploration]]. This marked the first documented contact by a European explorer with Hawai{{okina}}i.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hough |first=Richard |title=Captain James Cook: a biography |date=1997 |publisher=Norton |isbn=978-0-393-31519-6 |location=New York |pages=311–315}}</ref> Cook named the archipelago "the Sandwich Islands" in honor of his sponsor [[John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich]]. Cook returned to the Hawaiian Islands in 1779 to resupply and over-winter, anchoring in [[Kealakekua Bay|Kealakakua]] off Hawaii Island for one month. Relations with the local people were peaceful then deteriorated and [[Death of James Cook|Cook was among those killed]] when violence broke out between the British and local Hawaiians.

After Cook, Hawaii was not visited by any foreign ships for seven years but, after 1786, visits became increasingly frequent. At the end of the eighteenth century, the [[maritime fur trade]] developed between the northwest coast of North America and Asia bringing the ships of many nations to the North Pacific Ocean. The Hawaiian islands became established as a convenient source of supplies and destination for overwintering not only for fur traders but also ships engaged in general cross-Pacific commerce.<ref name="Kuykendall">{{Cite book |last=Kuykendall |first=Ralph S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nkXREAAAQBAJ&q=the+hawaiian+kingdom |title=The Hawaiian Kingdom 1778-1854 Vol 1 Foundation and Transformation |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1938 |location=Honolulu|isbn=978-0-8248-4322-9 }}</ref>{{rp|p=20–21}}

Historian [[Ralph Simpson Kuykendall|Ralph Kuykendall]] has described the impact of these foreign visitors on the hitherto isolated Hawaiian Islands as an “invasion” which “little by little overwhelmed the old culture of the islands”.<ref name="Kuykendall"/>{{rp|p=12}} Over the decades following the first contact, the foreign resident population slowly grew; foreigners imported iron tools, manufactured items, and household utensils; they also introduced firearms, alcohol, tobacco, non-native plants, and - inadvertently -  insects previously unknown to the islands such as mosquitos and scorpions.<ref name="Kuykendall"/>{{rp|p=26–28}}Native Hawaiians were vulnerable to Eurasian diseases for which they had less resistance.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}  Forty years after Cook's arrival, it is estimated that the native population had declined by half and continued to decline throughout the 19th century.<ref name="OHA"/> During the 1850s, measles killed a fifth of Hawai{{okina}}i's people.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=422 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070207121510/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=422 |archive-date=February 7, 2007|title=Migration and Disease | website=Digital History}}</ref>

===Kingdom of Hawai{{okina}}i===
{{Main|Kingdom of Hawaii}}

====House of Kamehameha====
[[File:Kamehameha Statue and flag.jpg|thumb|Kamehameha I conquered the Hawaiian Islands and established a unified monarchy across the archipelago.]]
During the 1780s and early 1790s, the Hawaiian Islands were divided among several warring chiefdoms. In 1795, the fighting ended when Kamehameha, then a chief (ali’i) of Hawaii Island, conquered most of the main islands in the archipelago (including Maui and Oahu) then founded the [[Hawaiian Kingdom]] and the [[House of Kamehameha]] dynasty. Kauai (with nearby Niihau) remained independent until 1810 when it [[Kauai#Cession to the Kingdom of Hawaii|joined the Hawaiian Kingdom peacefully]].<ref name="Kuykendall"/>{{rp|p=29–60}}

After [[Kamehameha II]] inherited the throne in 1819, American Protestant missionaries to Hawai{{okina}}i converted many Hawaiians to Christianity. Missionaries have argued that one function of missionary work was to "civilize" and "purify" perceived heathenism in the New World. This carried into Hawai{{okina}}i.<ref name="FLEXNER 2016 307–331">{{Cite journal |last1=Flexner |first1=James L. |last2=McCoy |first2=Mark D. |title=After the Missionaries: Historical Archaeology and Traditional Religious Sites in the Hawaiian Islands |date=2016 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44012072 |journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society |volume=125 |issue=3 |pages=307–331 |doi=10.15286/jps.125.3.307-332 |jstor=44012072 |issn=0032-4000}}</ref><ref name="nps.gov">{{Cite web |title=Cultural History of Three Traditional Hawaiian Sites (Chapter 5) |url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/kona/history5b.htm |access-date=2022-06-10 |website=www.nps.gov}}</ref><ref name="Medeiros">{{Cite thesis |last=Medeiros |first=Megan |date=June 2017 |title=Hawaiian History: The Dispossession of Native Hawaiians' Identity, and Their Struggle for Sovereignty |url=https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd/557 |type=MA thesis |publisher=California State University, San Bernardino }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meller |first=Norman |date=1958 |title=Missionaries to Hawaii: Shapers of the Islands' Government |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/443652 |journal=The Western Political Quarterly |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=788–799 |doi=10.2307/443652 |jstor=443652 |issn=0043-4078}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kashay |first=Jennifer Fish |date=2007 |title=Agents of Imperialism: Missionaries and Merchants in Early-Nineteenth-Century Hawaii |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20474535 |journal=The New England Quarterly |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=280–298 |doi=10.1162/tneq.2007.80.2.280 |jstor=20474535 |s2cid=57560408 |issn=0028-4866}}</ref> According to historical archaeologist James L. Flexner, "missionaries provided the moral means to rationalize conquest and wholesale conversion to Christianity".<ref name="FLEXNER 2016 307–331"/> But rather than abandon traditional beliefs entirely, most native Hawaiians merged their [[Hawaiian religion|Indigenous religion]] with Christianity.<ref name="FLEXNER 2016 307–331"/><ref name="nps.gov"/> Missionaries used their influence to end many traditional practices, including the ''[[Kapu (Hawaiian culture)|kapu]]'' system, the prevailing legal system before European contact, and ''heiau'', or "temples" to religious figures.<ref name="FLEXNER 2016 307–331"/><ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=i8RdAgAAQBAJ|page=165}}|title=Traditional Storytelling Today: An International Sourcebook|last=MacDonald|first=Margaret Read|date=December 16, 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135917142|page=165}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=_3DrC3iFfQQC|page=15}}|title=American Aloha: Cultural Tourism and the Negotiation of Tradition|last=Diamond|first=Heather A.|date=2008|publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press|isbn=9780824831714|page=15}}</ref> ''Kapu'', which typically translates to "the sacred", refers to social regulations (like gender and class restrictions) that were based upon spiritual beliefs.

Under the missionaries' guidance, laws against gambling, consuming alcohol, dancing the ''[[hula]]'', breaking the Sabbath, and polygamy were enacted.<ref name="nps.gov"/> Without the ''kapu'' system, many temples and priestly statuses were jeopardized, idols were burned, and participation in Christianity increased.<ref name="nps.gov"/><ref name="Medeiros"/> When [[Kamehameha III]] inherited the throne at age 12, his advisors pressured him to merge Christianity with traditional Hawaiian ways. Under the guidance of his ''kuhina nui'' (his mother and coregent [[Kaʻahumanu|Elizabeth Ka{{okina}}ahumanu]]) and British allies, Hawaiʻi turned into a Christian monarchy with the signing of the [[1840 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii|1840 Constitution]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hooilina.org/cgi-bin/journal?e=p-0journal--00-0-0-004-Document---0-1--1en-50---20-docoptions-search-issue---001-0110escapewin&a=p&p=frameset&cl=&d=HASH0166acfd8ec6df2fa38fd161.5.2.6|title=Ho'oilina Legacy Collection|website=hooilina.org|access-date=February 12, 2017|archive-date=December 12, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212213916/http://hooilina.org/cgi-bin/journal?e=p-0journal--00-0-0-004-Document---0-1--1en-50---20-docoptions-search-issue---001-0110escapewin&a=p&p=frameset&cl=&d=HASH0166acfd8ec6df2fa38fd161.5.2.6|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Medeiros"/> [[Hiram Bingham I]], a prominent Protestant missionary, was a trusted adviser to the monarchy during this period. Other missionaries and their descendants became active in commercial and political affairs, leading to conflicts between the monarchy and its restive American subjects.<ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=O_3fCgAAQBAJ|page=572}}|title=World History: Journeys from Past to Present|last1=Goucher|first1=Candice|last2=Walton|first2=Linda|date=March 12, 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135088293|page=572}}</ref> Missionaries from the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and from
[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] were also active in the kingdom, initially converting a minority of the Native Hawaiian population, but later becoming the first and second largest religious denominations on the islands, respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/handle/10524/240/JL07047.pdf?sequence=1|title=Religious Statistics of Hawaii, 1825–1972|last=Schmitt|first=Robert C.|page=43|type=Typographical error in "1950", meant to be "1850"|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525013217/https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/handle/10524/240/JL07047.pdf?sequence=1|archive-date=May 25, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Wist |first=Benjamin O. |chapter=Hawaii – An Educational Experiment in American Democracy |chapter-url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Bb0HAAAAMAAJ|page=5}}|title=Studies in the History of American Education|date=1947 |editor-last=Eggertsen |editor-first=Claude |publisher=University of Michigan School of Education |page=5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=HPyhAgAAQBAJ|page=89}}|title=Indigenous Symbols and Practices in the Catholic Church: Visual Culture, Missionization and Appropriation|last=Martin|first=Dr Kathleen J.|date=June 28, 2013|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=9781409480655|page=89}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/rcms2010A.asp?U=15&T=state&Y=2010&S=adh|title=The Association of Religion Data Archives &#124; State Membership Report|publisher=Thearda.com|access-date=April 19, 2021|archive-date=April 19, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419153651/https://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/rcms2010A.asp?U=15&T=state&Y=2010&S=adh|url-status=dead}}</ref> Missionaries from each major group administered to the leper colony at Kalaupapa on Moloka{{okina}}i, which was established in 1866 and operated well into the 20th century. The best known were [[Father Damien]] and [[Mother Marianne Cope]], both of whom were canonized in the early 21st century as Roman [[Catholic saints]].

The death of the bachelor [[Kamehameha V|King Kamehameha V]]—who did not name an heir—resulted in the popular election of [[Lunalilo]] over [[Kalākaua]]. Lunalilo died the next year, also without naming an heir. In 1874, the election was contested within the legislature between Kalākaua and [[Queen Emma of Hawaii|Emma, Queen Consort of Kamehameha IV]]. After riots broke out, the U.S. and Britain landed troops on the islands to restore order. The [[Legislature of the Kingdom of Hawaii|Legislative Assembly]] chose [[Kalākaua|King Kalākaua]] as monarch by a vote of 39 to{{spaces}}6 on February 12, 1874.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ulukau.org/elib/cgi-bin/library?e=d-0kingdom3-000Sec--11en-50-20-frameset-book--1-010escapewin&a=d&d=D0.3&toc=0|title=Ulukau: The Hawaiian kingdom, vol. 3, 1874–1893, The Kalakaua dynasty|website=www.ulukau.org|access-date=February 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150120013821/http://www.ulukau.org/elib/cgi-bin/library?e=d-0kingdom3-000Sec--11en-50-20-frameset-book--1-010escapewin&a=d&d=D0.3&toc=0|archive-date=January 20, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

====1887 Constitution and overthrow preparations====
In 1887, Kalākaua was forced to sign the [[1887 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii|1887 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawai{{okina}}i]]. Drafted by white businessmen and lawyers, the document stripped the king of much of his authority. It established a property qualification for voting that effectively disenfranchised most Hawaiians and immigrant laborers and favored the wealthier, white elite. Resident whites were allowed to vote but resident Asians were not. As the 1887 Constitution was signed under threat of violence, it is known as the Bayonet Constitution. King Kalākaua, reduced to a figurehead, reigned until his death in 1891. His sister, Queen [[Liliuokalani|Lili{{okina}}uokalani]], succeeded him; she was the last monarch of Hawai{{okina}}i.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ulukau.org/elib/cgi-bin/library?e=d-0kingdom3-000Sec--11en-50-20-frameset-book--1-010escapewin&a=d&d=D0.21&toc=0|title=Ulukau: The Hawaiian kingdom, vol. 3, 1874–1893, The Kalakaua dynasty|website=www.ulukau.org|access-date=February 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150120043915/http://www.ulukau.org/elib/cgi-bin/library?e=d-0kingdom3-000Sec--11en-50-20-frameset-book--1-010escapewin&a=d&d=D0.21&toc=0|archive-date=January 20, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1893, Lili{{okina}}uokalani announced plans for a new constitution to proclaim herself an absolute monarch. On January 14, 1893, a group of mostly Euro-American business leaders and residents formed the [[Committee of Safety (Hawaii)|Committee of Safety]] to stage a [[Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii|coup d'état]] against the kingdom and seek annexation by the United States. U.S. Government Minister [[John L. Stevens]], responding to a request from the Committee of Safety, summoned a company of U.S. Marines. The queen's soldiers did not resist. According to historian William Russ, the monarchy was unable to protect itself.<ref name="Adam">{{cite book | last = Russ | first = William Adam | title = The Hawaiian Revolution (1893–94) | publisher=Associated University Presses | year = 1992 | page = 350 | isbn = 978-0-945636-43-4}}</ref> In ''Hawaiian Autonomy'', Lili{{Okina}}uokalani states: <blockquote>If we did not by force resist their final outrage, it was because we could not do so without striking at the military force of the United States. Whatever constraint the executive of this great country may be under to recognize the present government at Honolulu has been forced upon it by no act of ours, but by the unlawful acts of its own agents. Attempts to repudiate those acts are vain.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hawaii's Story by Hawaii's Queen. |url=https://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/liliuokalani/hawaii/hawaii.html#LVII |access-date=2022-06-10 |website=digital.library.upenn.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=G. |first=Long, Michael |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1237408556 |title=We the Resistance Documenting a History of Nonviolent Protest in the United States. |date=2021 |publisher=City Lights Publishers |isbn=978-0-87286-851-9 |oclc=1237408556}}</ref></blockquote>In a message to Sanford B. Dole, Lili{{Okina}}uokalani states:<blockquote>Now to avoid any collision of armed forces and perhaps the loss of life, I do under this protest, and impelled by said force, yield my authority until such time as the Government of the United States shall, upon the facts being presented to it, undo the action of its representatives and reinstate me in the authority which I claim as the constitutional sovereign of the Hawaiian Islands.<ref name=":5"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1894, Appendix II, Affairs in Hawaii – Office of the Historian |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1894app2/d82 |access-date=2022-06-10 |website=history.state.gov}}</ref></blockquote>

===Overthrow of 1893 – Republic of Hawai{{okina}}i (1894–1898)===
{{Main|Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii|Provisional Government of Hawaii|Republic of Hawaii}}
{{See also|List of Hawaiian sovereignty movement groups#Historical – Royalist Organizations (from 1880s)}}The treason trials of 1892 brought together the main players in the 1893 overthrow. American Minister John L. Stevens voiced support for Native Hawaiian revolutionaries; William R. Castle, a Committee of Safety member, served as a defense counsel in the treason trials; Alfred Stedman Hartwell, the 1893 annexation commissioner, led the defense effort; and Sanford B. Dole ruled as a supreme court justice against acts of conspiracy and treason.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kam |first=Ralph Thomas |date=2021 |title=The First Attempt to Overthrow Lili'uokalani |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/840139 |journal=Hawaiian Journal of History |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=41–69 |doi=10.1353/hjh.2021.0001 |s2cid=244912091 |issn=2169-7639}}</ref>[[File:Liliuokalani in 1891.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Liliuokalani|Queen Lili{{okina}}uokalani]], the last reigning monarch of the Hawaiian Kingdom|alt=Queen Lili{{okina}}uokalani, seated inside {{okina}}Iolani Palace]]

On January 17, 1893, a small group of sugar and pineapple-growing businessmen, aided by the American minister to Hawaii and backed by heavily armed U.S. soldiers and marines, deposed Queen Lili{{Okina}}uokalani and installed a provisional government composed of members of the Committee of Safety.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Digital History |url=https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=3&amp;psid=1283 |access-date=2022-06-10 |website=www.digitalhistory.uh.edu}}</ref> According to scholar Lydia Kualapai and Hawaii State Representative Roy Takumi, this committee was formed against the will of Indigenous Hawaiian voters, who constituted the majority of voters at the time, and consisted of "thirteen white men" according to scholar J Kehaulani Kauanui.<ref name="KUALAPAI 2005 32–62">{{Cite journal |last=Kualapai |first=Lydia |date=2005 |title=The Queen Writes Back: Lili'uokalani's Hawaii's Story by Hawaii's Queen |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20737264 |journal=Studies in American Indian Literatures |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=32–62 |doi=10.1353/ail.2005.0053 |jstor=20737264 |s2cid=161123895 |issn=0730-3238}}</ref><ref name="Takumi 1994 8–9"/><ref name="Kauanui 2004 145–150"/> The United States Minister to the [[Kingdom of Hawaii]] ([[John L. Stevens]]) conspired with U.S. citizens to overthrow the monarchy.<ref name="HIgpo"/> After the overthrow, [[Sanford B. Dole]], a citizen of Hawaii and cousin to James Dole, owner of Hawaiian Fruit Company, a company that benefited from the annexation of Hawaii, became president of the republic when the [[Provisional Government of Hawaii|Provisional Government of Hawai{{okina}}i]] ended on July 4, 1894.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hawkins |first=Richard A. |journal=Hawaiian Journal of History |volume=41 |date=2007 |title=James D. Dole and the 1932 Failure of the Hawaiian Pineapple Company |url=http://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10524/12232 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Coulter |first=John Wesley |date=1934 |title=Pineapple Industry in Hawaii |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/140126 |journal=Economic Geography |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=288–296 |doi=10.2307/140126 |jstor=140126 |issn=0013-0095}}</ref>

Controversy ensued in the following years as the queen tried to regain her throne. Scholar Lydia Kualapai writes that Lili{{okina}}uokalani had "yielded under protest not to the counterfeit Provisional Government of Hawaii but to the superior force of the United States of America" and wrote letters of protest to the president requesting a recognizance of allyship and a reinstatement of her sovereignty against the recent actions of the Provisional Government of Hawaii.<ref name="KUALAPAI 2005 32–62"/> Following the January 1893 coup that deposed Lili{{Okina}}uokalani, many royalists were preparing to overthrow the white-led Republic of Hawai{{okina}}i oligarchy. Hundreds of rifles were covertly shipped to Hawaii and hidden in caves nearby. As armed troops came and went, a Republic of Hawai{{okina}}i patrol discovered the rebel group. On January 6, 1895, gunfire began on both sides and later the rebels were surrounded and captured. Over the next 10 days several skirmishes occurred, until the last armed opposition surrendered or were captured. The Republic of Hawai{{okina}}i took 123 troops into custody as prisoners of war. The mass arrest of nearly 300 more men and women, including Queen Lili{{Okina}}uokalani, as political prisoners was intended to incapacitate the political resistance against the ruling oligarchy. In March 1895, a military tribunal convicted 170 prisoners of treason and sentenced six troops to be "hung by the neck" until dead, according to historian Ronald Williams Jr. The other prisoners were variously sentenced to from five to thirty-five years' imprisonment at hard labor, while those convicted of lesser charges received sentences from six months' to six years' imprisonment at hard labor.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last=Williams |first=Ronald Jr. |date=2021 |title=Incarcerating a Nation: The Arrest and Imprisonment of Political Prisoners by the Republic of Hawai{{okina}}i, 1895 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/840143 |journal=Hawaiian Journal of History |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=167–176 |doi=10.1353/hjh.2021.0005 |s2cid=244913179 |issn=2169-7639}}</ref> The queen was sentenced to five years in prison, but spent eight months under house arrest until she was released on parole.<ref>{{cite book |last=Menton |first=Linda K. |title=A History of Hawaii, Student Book |publisher=Curriculum Research & Development Group |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-937049-94-5 |edition=2nd |location=Honolulu, HI}}</ref> The total number of arrests related to the 1895 Kaua Kūloko was 406 people on a summary list of statistics, published by the government of the Republic of Hawai{{okina}}i.<ref name=":3" />

The administration of President [[Grover Cleveland]] commissioned the [[Blount Report]], which concluded that the removal of Lili{{okina}}uokalani had been illegal. Commissioner Blount found the U.S. and its minister guilty on all counts including the overthrow, the landing of the marines, and the recognition of the provisional government.<ref name=":5">{{cite book |last=Trask |first=Haunani-Kay |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9780824847029/html |title=From a Native Daughter |date=2021-05-25 |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |isbn=978-0-8248-4702-9 |doi=10.1515/9780824847029}}</ref> In a message to Congress, Cleveland wrote:<blockquote>And finally, but for the lawless occupation of Honolulu under false pretexts by the United States forces, and but for Minister Stevens' recognition of the provisional government when the United States forces were its sole support and constituted its only military strength, the Queen and her Government would never have yielded to the provisional government, even for a time and for the sole purpose of submitting her case to the enlightened justice of the United States.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":4" /> By an act of war, committed with the participation of a diplomatic representative of the United States and without authority of Congress, the Government of a feeble but friendly and confiding people has been overthrown. A substantial wrong has thus been done which a due regard for our national character as well as the rights of the injured people requires we should endeavor to repair. The provisional government has not assumed a republican or other constitutional form, but has remained a mere executive council or oligarchy, set up without the assent of the people. It has not sought to find a permanent basis of popular support and has given no evidence of an intention to do so.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /></blockquote>The U.S. government first demanded that Queen Lili{{okina}}uokalani be reinstated, but the Provisional Government refused. On December 23, 1893, the response from the Provisional Government of Hawaii, authored by President Sanford B. Dole, was received by Cleveland's representative Minister Albert S. Willis and emphasized that the Provisional Government of Hawaii "unhesitatingly" rejected the demand from the Cleveland Administration.<ref name="KUALAPAI 2005 32–62"/>

Congress conducted an independent investigation, and on February 26, 1894, submitted the [[Morgan Report]], which found all parties, including Minister Stevens—with the exception of the queen—"not guilty" and not responsible for the coup.<ref>{{cite book| author=Kuykendall, R.S. |year=1967 |title=The Hawaiian Kingdom, 1874–1893 |location=Honolulu, HI |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |page=648}}</ref> Partisans on both sides of the debate questioned the accuracy and impartiality of both the Blount and Morgan reports over the events of 1893.<ref name="Adam"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Kinzer |first=Stephen |title=Overthrow: America's Century of Regime Change From Hawaii to Iraq |url=https://archive.org/details/overthrowamerica00kinz |publisher=Times Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8050-7861-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Rush Limbaugh Sounds Off on Akaka Bill |url=http://www.hawaiireporter.com/rush-limbaugh-sounds-off-on-akaka-bill/123 |url-status=live |website=Hawaii Reporter |date=August 18, 2005 |access-date=February 13, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512101435/http://www.hawaiireporter.com/rush-limbaugh-sounds-off-on-akaka-bill/123 |archive-date=May 12, 2013}}</ref><ref name="HDAICS">{{cite web |last=Fein |first=Bruce |author-link=Bruce Fein |title=Hawaii Divided Against Itself Cannot Stand |url=https://www.angelfire.com/hi5/bigfiles3/AkakaHawaiiDividedFeinJune2005.pdf |url-status=live |publisher=[[Grassroot Institute of Hawaii]] |location=Honolulu, HI |date=June 6, 2005 |access-date=May 7, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205112419/http://www.hawaiireporter.com/file.aspx?Guid=aefef5f6-a533-486a-9459-691138355dd1 |archive-date=February 5, 2007}}</ref>

In 1993, Congress passed a joint [[Apology Resolution]] regarding the overthrow; it was signed by President [[Bill Clinton]]. The resolution apologized and said that the overthrow was illegal in the following phrase: "The Congress—on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the illegal overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawai{{okina}}i on January 17, 1893, acknowledges the historical significance of this event which resulted in the suppression of the inherent sovereignty of the Native Hawaiian people."<ref name="HIgpo">{{cite web|title=Public Law 103-150 – November 23, 1993|website=gpo.gov|url=https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-107/pdf/STATUTE-107-Pg1510.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407014005/https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-107/pdf/STATUTE-107-Pg1510.pdf|archive-date=April 7, 2018|url-status=live|access-date=July 3, 2018}}</ref> The Apology Resolution also "acknowledges that the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawai{{okina}}i occurred with the active participation of agents and citizens of the United States and further acknowledges that the Native Hawaiian people never directly relinquished to the United States their claims to their inherent sovereignty as a people over their national lands, either through the Kingdom of Hawai{{okina}}i or through a plebiscite or referendum".<ref name = "HDAICS"/><ref name="HIgpo"/>

==={{anchor|annexation}}Annexation – Territory of Hawai{{okina}}i (1898–1959)===
{{Main|Organic act#List of organic acts|Territory of Hawaii}}
[[File:1899BalanceCartoon.jpg|thumb|upright|In 1899 Uncle Sam balances his new possessions, which are racistly depicted in the [[pickaninny]] stereotype; the figures are [[Puerto Rico]], Hawaii, [[Cuba]], [[Philippines]] and "Ladrones" (the [[Mariana Islands]], including [[Guam]]).]]
After [[William McKinley]] won the 1896 U.S. presidential election, advocates pressed to annex the Republic of Hawai{{okina}}i. The previous president, Grover Cleveland, was a friend of Queen Lili{{okina}}uokalani. McKinley was open to persuasion by U.S. expansionists and by annexationists from Hawai{{okina}}i. He met with three non-native annexationists: [[Lorrin A. Thurston]], Francis March Hatch and [[William Ansel Kinney]]. After negotiations in June 1897, Secretary of State [[John Sherman (politician)|John Sherman]] agreed to a treaty of annexation with these representatives of the Republic of Hawai{{okina}}i.<ref>{{cite web |website= The [[Morgan Report]] |url= http://morganreport.org/mediawiki/index.php?title=1897_Annexation_Treaty |title= 1897 Hawaii Annexation Treaty |access-date= August 14, 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100825165348/http://morganreport.org/mediawiki/index.php?title=1897_Annexation_Treaty |archive-date= August 25, 2010 |url-status= live }}</ref> The [[U.S. Senate]] never ratified the treaty. Despite the opposition of most native Hawaiians,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://libweb.hawaii.edu/digicoll/annexation/pet-intro.html |title=Anti-annexation petitions—Page 1 |publisher=Libweb.hawaii.edu |access-date=March 9, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317183803/http://libweb.hawaii.edu/digicoll/annexation/pet-intro.html |archive-date=March 17, 2012 }}</ref> the [[Newlands Resolution]] was used to annex the republic to the U.S.; it became the [[Territory of Hawaii|Territory of Hawai{{okina}}i]]. The Newlands Resolution was passed by the House on June 15, 1898, by 209 votes in favor to 91 against, and by the Senate on July 6, 1898, by a vote of 42 to 21.<ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=IjZPcGb2R08C|page=209}}|title=Who Owns the Crown Lands of Hawai_i?|last=Dyke|first=Jon M. Van|date=January 1, 2008|publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press|isbn=9780824832117|page=209}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://cdnc.ucr.edu/cgi-bin/cdnc?a=d&d=SDU18980616.2.60|title=Sacramento Daily Union 16 June 1898—California Digital Newspaper Collection|website=cdnc.ucr.edu|access-date=February 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170213163714/https://cdnc.ucr.edu/cgi-bin/cdnc?a=d&d=SDU18980616.2.60|archive-date=February 13, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://hrmakahinui.com/Timeline_Kingdom_of_Hawaii.php|title=Annexation Timeline—of the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii|website=hrmakahinui.com|access-date=February 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117074544/http://hrmakahinui.com/Timeline_Kingdom_of_Hawaii.php|archive-date=November 17, 2016|url-status=usurped}}</ref>

A majority of Native Hawaiians opposed annexation, voiced chiefly by Lili{{okina}}uokalani, whom Hawaiian [[Haunani-Kay Trask]] described as beloved and respected by her people.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Franklin |first1=Cynthia |last2=Lyons |first2=Laura E. |title=Land, Leadership, and Nation: Haunani-Kay Trask on the Testimonial Uses of Life Writing in Hawai{{okina}}i |date=2004 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23540436 |journal=Biography |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=222–249 |jstor=23540436 |issn=0162-4962}}</ref> Lili{{okina}}uokalani wrote, "it had not entered into our hearts to believe that these friends and allies from the United States&nbsp;... would ever go so far as to absolutely overthrow our form of government, seize our nation by the throat, and pass it over to an alien power" in her retelling of the overthrow of her government.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Liliuokalani, Queen of Hawaii |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1262093837 |title=Hawaii's story by Hawaii's Queen |date=February 23, 2021 |publisher=Mint Editions |isbn=978-1-5132-0902-9 |oclc=1262093837}}</ref> According to Trask, newspapers at the time argued Hawaiians would suffer "virtual enslavement under annexation", including further loss of lands and liberties, in particular to sugar plantation owners.<ref name="Verfasser">{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Haunani-Kay |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1256413351 |title=From a Native Daughter : Colonialism and Sovereignty in Hawaii |year=1999 |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |isbn=978-0-8248-4702-9 |oclc=1256413351|edition=Revised }}</ref> These plantations were protected by the U.S. Navy as economic interests, justifying a continued military presence in the islands.<ref name="Verfasser"/>

In 1900, Hawai{{okina}}i was granted self-governance and retained [[Iolani Palace|{{okina}}Iolani Palace]] as the territorial capitol building. Despite several attempts to become a state, Hawaii remained a territory for 60 years. Plantation owners and capitalists, who maintained control through financial institutions such as the [[Big Five (Hawaii)|Big Five]], found territorial status convenient because they remained able to import cheap, foreign labor. Such immigration and labor practices were prohibited in many states.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.abebooks.co.uk/Hawaii-Statehood-Honolulu-Star-Bulletin/7223272607/bd|title=Hawaii Statehood—Honolulu Star-Bulletin by Hawaii: Honolulu, Hawaii No binding—Seth Kaller Inc|website=www.abebooks.co.uk|access-date=February 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170213164159/https://www.abebooks.co.uk/Hawaii-Statehood-Honolulu-Star-Bulletin/7223272607/bd|archive-date=February 13, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:USS SHAW exploding Pearl Harbor Nara 80-G-16871 2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=The USS Shaw explodes during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.|The Japanese [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] in 1941 was the primary event which caused the United States to enter [[World War&nbsp;II]].]]

[[Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii|Puerto Rican immigration to Hawai{{okina}}i]] began in 1899, when Puerto Rico's sugar industry was devastated by [[1899 San Ciriaco hurricane|a hurricane]], causing a worldwide shortage of sugar and a huge demand for sugar from Hawai{{okina}}i. Hawaiian [[sugarcane]] [[Sugar plantations in Hawaii|plantation]] owners began to recruit experienced, unemployed laborers in Puerto Rico. Two waves of [[Korean immigration to Hawaii|Korean immigration to Hawai{{okina}}i]] occurred in the 20th century. The first wave arrived between 1903 and 1924; the second wave began in 1965 after President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] signed the [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965]], which removed racial and national barriers and resulted in significantly altering the demographic mix in the U.S.<ref>{{cite news |title=1965 immigration law changed face of America |author=Jennifer Ludden |newspaper=NPR.org |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5391395 |publisher=NPR |access-date=September 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021143552/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5391395 |archive-date=October 21, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

O{{okina}}ahu was the target of a surprise [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] by the [[Empire of Japan]] on December 7, 1941. The attack on Pearl Harbor and other military and naval installations, carried out by [[Warplane|aircraft]] and by [[midget submarine]]s, brought the United States into [[World War&nbsp;II]].<!-- The Japanese had justification to attack American held Hawai{{okina}}i since the Japanese Empire and the Kingdom of Hawai{{okina}}i once had a political alliance when the last Crown Princess of Hawai{{okina}}i [[Kaʻiulani]] and Crown [[Prince Higashifushimi Yorihito]] were in love and they were supposed to marry if it wasn't prevented due to weight of their other responsibilities.{{cn}} -->

===Political changes of 1954 – State of Hawai{{okina}}i (1959–present)===
{{Main|Hawaii Democratic Revolution of 1954|Hawaii Admission Act|Admission to the Union|List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union}}
{{See also|List of Hawaiian sovereignty movement groups#Modern – Sovereignty Organizations (1960s–present)}}
[[File:Food-Hawaii-Canning. Native girls packing pineapple into cans. - NARA - 522863.tif|thumb|alt=Three young women pack pineapples into cans in 1928.|Prior to the postwar labor movement, Hawaii was governed by plantation owners. Here, three young women pack pineapples into cans in 1928.]]

In the 1950s, the plantation owners' power was broken by the descendants of immigrant laborers, who were born in Hawai{{okina}}i and were U.S. citizens. They voted against the [[Hawaii Republican Party|Hawai{{okina}}i Republican Party]], strongly supported by plantation owners. The new majority voted for the [[Democratic Party of Hawaii|Democratic Party of Hawai{{okina}}i]], which dominated territorial and state politics for more than 40 years. Eager to gain full representation in Congress and the Electoral College, residents actively campaigned for statehood. In Washington, there was talk that Hawai{{okina}}i would be a Republican Party stronghold. As a result, the admission of Hawaii was matched with the admission of Alaska, which was seen as a Democratic Party stronghold. These predictions proved inaccurate; as of 2017, Hawai{{okina}}i almost always votes Democratic, while Alaska typically votes Republican.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/188969/red-states-outnumber-blue-first-time-gallup-tracking.aspx|title=Red States Outnumber Blue for First Time in Gallup Tracking|website=gallup.com|access-date=January 5, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104092539/http://www.gallup.com/poll/188969/red-states-outnumber-blue-first-time-gallup-tracking.aspx|archive-date=January 4, 2017|url-status=live|date=February 3, 2016}}</ref><ref>[ 2016 election result—Politico]</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.boundless.com/political-science/textbooks/boundless-political-science-textbook/interest-groups-7/modern-political-parties-59/red-states-vs-blue-states-337-4262/|title=Red States vs. Blue States|last=Boundless|date=August 8, 2016|website=Boundless.com|access-date=January 5, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112151613/https://www.boundless.com/political-science/textbooks/boundless-political-science-textbook/interest-groups-7/modern-political-parties-59/red-states-vs-blue-states-337-4262/|archive-date=November 12, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://elections.nbcnews.com/ns/politics/2012/all/president/|title=2012 Presidential Race—Election Results by State—NBC News|date=December 2, 2011|website=nbcnews.com|access-date=January 5, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106174223/http://elections.nbcnews.com/ns/politics/2012/all/president/|archive-date=January 6, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

During the Cold War,  Hawai{{okina}}i became an important site for U.S. [[cultural diplomacy]], military training, research, and as a staging ground for the U.S. [[Vietnam War|war in Vietnam]].<ref name=":Cheng2">{{Cite book |last=Cheng |first=Wendy |title=Island X: Taiwanese Student Migrants, Campus Spies, and Cold War Activism |date=2023 |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |isbn=9780295752051 |location=Seattle, WA}}</ref>{{Rp|page=105}}

In March 1959, Congress passed the [[Hawaii Admission Act|Hawai{{okina}}i Admissions Act]], which U.S. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] signed into law.<ref>{{cite video  |title=Video: Aloha Hawaii. islanders Celebrate Long-Sought Statehood, 1959/03/16 (1959) |url=https://archive.org/details/1959-03-16_Aloha_Hawaii |url-status=live |publisher=[[Universal Newsreel]] |year=1959 |access-date=February 20, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515045750/https://archive.org/details/1959-03-16_Aloha_Hawaii |archive-date=May 15, 2012}}</ref> The act excluded [[Palmyra Atoll]] from statehood; it had been part of the Kingdom and Territory of Hawai{{okina}}i. On June 27, 1959, a referendum asked residents of Hawai{{okina}}i to vote on the statehood bill; 94.3% voted in favor of statehood and 5.7% opposed it.<ref name="celebrating-50-years-of-statehood">{{cite web |url=http://archive.lingle.hawaii.gov/govgallery/news/files/2009/march/celebrating-50-years-of-statehood |title=Commemorating 50 Years of Statehood |website=archive.lingle.hawaii.gov |publisher=State of Hawaii |date=March 18, 2009 |access-date=March 21, 2014 |quote=On June 27, 1959, a plebiscite was held to allow Hawai{{okina}}i residents to ratify the congressional vote for statehood. The 'yes for statehood' garnered 94.3 percent (132,773 votes) while the 'no' ballots totaled 5.7 percent (7,971 votes). |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140321081230/http://archive.lingle.hawaii.gov/govgallery/news/files/2009/march/celebrating-50-years-of-statehood |archive-date=March 21, 2014}}</ref> The referendum asked voters to choose between accepting the Act and remaining a U.S. territory. The United Nations' [[Special Committee on Decolonization]] later removed Hawai{{okina}}i from [[United Nations list of non-self-governing territories|its list of non-self-governing territories]].

After attaining statehood, Hawai{{okina}}i quickly modernized through construction and a rapidly growing tourism economy. Later, state programs promoted Hawaiian culture.{{which|date=March 2015}} The [[1978 Hawaii State Constitutional Convention|Hawai{{okina}}i State Constitutional Convention of 1978]] created institutions such as the [[Office of Hawaiian Affairs]] to promote indigenous language and culture.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Van Dyke |first=Jon |title=The Constitutionality of the Office of Hawaiian Affairs |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/uhawlr7&div=9&id=&page= |url-status=live |journal=University of Hawaiʻi Law Review |volume=7 |page=63 |date=1985 |access-date=June 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921094007/https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals%2Fuhawlr7&div=9&id=&page= |archive-date=September 21, 2020}}</ref>

===Legacy of annexation on Hawaiian land===
In 1897, over 21,000 Natives, representing the overwhelming majority of adult Hawaiians, signed anti-annexation petitions in one of the first examples of protest against the overthrow of Queen Lili{{okina}}uokalani's government.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Trask |first=Haunani-Kay |date=2000 |title=Native Social Capital: The Case of Hawaiian Sovereignty and Ka Lahui Hawaii |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4532510 |journal=Policy Sciences |volume=33 |issue=3/4 |pages=375–385 |doi=10.1023/A:1004870517612 |jstor=4532510 |s2cid=152872242 |issn=0032-2687}}</ref> Nearly 100 years later, in 1993, 17,000 Hawaiians marched to demand access and control over Hawaiian trust lands and as part of the modern Hawaiian sovereignty movement.<ref name="LaDuke 2017">{{Cite book |first=Winona |last=LaDuke |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1099066009 |title=All our relations : native struggles for land and life |date=2017 |publisher=Haymarket Books |isbn=978-1-60846-661-0 |oclc=1099066009}}</ref> Hawaiian trust land ownership and use is still widely contested as a consequence of annexation. According to scholar Winona LaDuke, as of 2015, 95% of Hawai{{okina}}i's land was owned or controlled by just 82 landholders, including over 50% by federal and state governments, as well as the established sugar and pineapple companies.<ref name="LaDuke 2017"/> The [[Thirty Meter Telescope]] is planned to be built on Hawaiian trust land, but has faced resistance as the project {{Clarify span|date=April 2023|text=interferes with Kanaka indigeneity.}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Casumbal-Salazar |first=Iokepa |date=2017 |title=A Fictive Kinship: Making 'Modernity,' 'Ancient Hawaiians,' and the Telescopes on Mauna Kea |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/natiindistudj.4.2.0001 |journal=Native American and Indigenous Studies |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=1–30 |doi=10.5749/natiindistudj.4.2.0001 |jstor=10.5749/natiindistudj.4.2.0001 |s2cid=165414887 |issn=2332-1261}}</ref>