Editing Gerardus Mercator (section)

==Works==
===Globes and instruments===
The globes by [[Gemma Frisius]] and Mercator are discussed in Volume 3 of the History of Cartography (Cartography in the European Renaissance).{{sfn|Woodward|1987}} Chapter 6: "Globes in Renaissance Europe" by [[Elly Dekker]]. Chapter 44: "Commercial Cartography and Map Production in the Low Countries, 1500–ca. 1672" by Cornelis Koeman, Günter Schilder, Marco van Egmond, and Peter van der Krogt. The definitive work is "Globi neerlandici: the production of globes in the Low Countries" by Peter van der Krogt.{{sfn|van der Krogt|1993}}
{{anchor|gemma1536}}
*'''1536 Gemma Frisius terrestrial globe.'''

::Wholly devised by Frisius who invited Mercator to engrave the text. The only extant example is part of the Schmidt collection held by the [[Globe Museum]] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20160630094440/http://www.onb.ac.at/ev/globe_museum/globe_history.htm website]) of the [[Austrian National Library]]. Another example held at the Gymnasium Francisceum of [[Zerbst]] in eastern Germany was destroyed in the Second World War, but there is a full description in Stevenson.{{sfn|Stevenson|1921|p=102}}

{{anchor|gemma1537}}
*'''1537 Gemma Frisius celestial globe.''' [http://prints.rmg.co.uk/art/496943/celestial-table-globe Image] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202001440/http://prints.rmg.co.uk/art/496943/celestial-table-globe |date=2 February 2017 }}
::The only known example is held by the [http://www.rmg.co.uk/ Royal Museums Greenwich] (formerly the National Maritime Museum). On this globe Mercator's name appears on equal footing with that of Frisius. The globe is also described in Stevenson.{{sfn|Stevenson|1921|p=102}}
{{anchor|globes1541/51}}
*'''1541/1551 Terrestrial and celestial globes'''
::Over twenty pairs of large (420mm) globes are still in existence. Both of the globes and their un-pasted gores may be examined in high resolution.{{efn|The terrestrial and celestial globes may be examined in high resolution at the [http://hcl.harvard.edu/libraries/maps/exhibits/mercator/main.html Harvard Map Collection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120817121654/http://hcl.harvard.edu/libraries/maps/exhibits/mercator/main.html |date=17 August 2012 }}}}{{efn|The gores for both Mercator globes held by the Bibliothèque Royale (Brussels) have been published in facsimile with a preface by Antoine de Smet ({{harv|Mercator|Smet|1968}}. High resolution images are available at the [http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-233256665/view National Library of Australia] (click on Browse).}} A full description of the globes may be found online in Stevenson.{{sfn|Stevenson|1921|pp= 124–135}} 
::The terrestrial globe is significant in conjecturing that North America is separated from Asia, unlike the globe of Monachus. Another feature, the shape Mercator ascribed to ''Beach'' and ''Maletur'', later gave rise to speculation that the north coast of Australia had been visited in the early sixteenth century.{{sfn|Crane|2003|loc=Chapter 13|p=346, n14}}{{sfn|King|2017}} An inscription on the globe promises: "Where and for what reasons we have departed from the editions of others, Oh Reader, will be pointed out in our booklet".{{efn|''Vbi et quibus argumentis, Lector, ab aliorum desciverimus aeditione libellus noster indicabit.''}}
::Mercator also added a feature of special value to seamen: from the numerous compass or wind roses he drew rhumb lines rather than great circles. The rhumb lines correspond to constant sailing directions but on the spherical globe they appear as spirals. The globe was manufactured in great numbers but it was never updated. The celestial globe was up to date in using the information provided by Copernicus.{{sfn|Crane|2003|loc=Chapter 16 |p=170}}

===Maps===
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*'''1537 Holy land''' [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b59627789/f1.item.r=Ge%20DD%202987%20La%20Terre%20sainte%20mercator.zoom View online].

::''Amplissima Terrae Sanctae descriptio ad utriusque Testamenti intelligentiam.'' (A description of the Holy Land for understanding both testaments). Dedicated to [[:nl:Franciscus van Cranevelt|Franciscus van Cranevelt]]. Size; {{convert|67|x|122|cm|abbr=on}} in 6 sheets. Two copies are extant: one at the library of Perugia and another at the Bibliotheque Nationale de France (link above). Based on a [https://archive.org/stream/den-kbd-all-130018107806-001#page/n254/mode/2up map] by the lutheran [[Jacob Ziegler]]. Mercator's map shows the route of the Israelites from Egypt to the Promised Land. The title discloses a hope of helping people in their Bible studies, a Lutheran notion that would have aroused the suspicions of the inquisition.{{sfn|Crane|2003|loc=Chapter 9| p=103}}
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*'''1538 World Map''' [http://collections.lib.uwm.edu/u?/agdm,854 View online.]

:: This wall map has no title but it is normally referred to as ''Orbis Imago'' (from the first sentence of the central legend, below). Size: {{convert|54.5|x|35.5|cm|lk=out|abbr=on}}. Dedicated to Johannes Drosius. Two copies extant: one at the American Geographical Society Library (link above), and another at the New York Public Library. The first map identifying North American and South America. The map was a slightly modified copy of a [https://www.loc.gov/resource/g3200.ct001393/  1531 world map] (and its text) by [[Oronce Fine]]. The double cordiform projection,{{efn|For a discussion of cordiform projections see {{harvnb|Snyder|1993|p=37|loc= Figure 1.27}} }} may well have been chosen because of its relationship to aspects of Lutheran beliefs.{{sfn|Crane|2003|loc= Chapter 10|p=110}} A notice to the reader ([[:q:Gerardus Mercator#Orbis Imago 1538 (Dear reader)|Latin text]]) at the top of the map says: "Let America, [[Sarmatia]] and India bear witness, Dear Reader, that the image of the world you see here is newer and more correct than those that have been circulated hitherto. We propose with regard to the different parts of the world to treat, successively, particular regions more broadly, as we are already doing with Europe, and you may soon expect a universal map, which will not be inferior to that of Ptolemy. Farewell. 1538".

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*'''1540 Flanders''' (Flandria). [http://www.museumplantinmoretus.be/en/page/gerard-mercator-map-flanders Original], [http://www.orteliusmaps.com/book/ort76.html copy by Ortelius], [http://expositions.nlr.ru/eng/map_merkator/1.php 1595 atlas], [https://sanderusmaps.com/en/our-catalogue/detail/165782/antique-map-of-flanders-(vlaanderen)-by-g-mercator/ 1613 atlas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408103309/https://sanderusmaps.com/en/our-catalogue/detail/165782/antique-map-of-flanders-(vlaanderen)-by-g-mercator/ |date=8 April 2016 }}.
:: Wall map {{convert|96|x|125|cm|abbr=on}} in 9 sheets. Dedicated to Charles V. This map was commissioned by merchants of Ghent who intended that it should be presented to Charles V in the forlorn hope that it might divert the wrath of the Emperor after their rebellion. It would be a more respectful replacement of [[:File:Charte van Vlaendren 1538 Pieter van der Beke.jpg |a 1538 map]] by [[:nl:Pieter Van der Beke|Pieter Van der Beke]] which had stressed the defiant independence of the Flemish cities.{{sfn|Crane|2003|loc=Chapter 11}} The map is remarkably accurate and it is presumed to be based on a triangulation of Flanders by [[Jacob van Deventer (cartographer)|Jacob van Deventer]].{{sfn|Crane|2003|loc=Chapter 11 |p=119}} A single original is extant and may be inspected in the [[Plantin-Moretus Museum]]: it also appeared in the atlas of 1585 and in the ''[[Theatrum Orbis Terrarum]]'' of [[Abraham Ortelius]].{{efn|The ''[[Theatrum Orbis Terrarum]]'' may be [https://archive.org/details/theatrumorbister00orte viewed online]. It includes the Mercator maps of the Holy Land, Flanders, Britain and the world (1569).}}

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*'''1554 Europe''' [[:File:MercatormapFullEurope16thcentury.jpg |1554 version]]. [http://mapsys.info/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/Europe-From-Mercator-35-page.jpg 1595 version.]
:: ''Europae descriptio.'' Wall map {{convert|165|x|135|cm|abbr=on}} on 15 sheets. Dedicated to Antoine Perrenot. No known copy of the whole map has been discovered but several copies of the map were cut and re-assembled (by Mercator) for inclusion in the unique [[#europe1570|Atlas of Europe]] from 1570–72, for example the map of Spain on pages 7 and 8 but not the map of Europe on pages 1 and 2 which is taken from the 1569 world map. They are available in facsimile.{{sfn|Watelet|1997}} The map used a cordiform projection. It was revised by Mercator in 1572 and again by Rumold for the 1595 atlas. The 1995 map uses a different projection.

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*'''1564 British Isles''', [http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/ttp/mercator/accessible/pages15and16.html#content 1570 atlas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326050758/http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/ttp/mercator/accessible/pages15and16.html#content |date=26 March 2016 }} [http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/unvbrit/a/001map0000183r2u000020a0.html Individual sheets] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305151504/http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/unvbrit/a/001map0000183r2u000020a0.html |date=5 March 2016 }}, [https://web.archive.org/web/20160324103537/http://www.vintage-maps.com/1572-extra_large/ortelius-british-islands-united-kingdom-1601.jpg Ortelius copy], [https://web.archive.org/web/20160324104956/http://www.jpmaps.co.uk/mapimages/originals/35236.jpg de Jode copy].
:: ''Anglia & Scotiae & Hibernie nova descriptio.'' Wall map {{convert|92|x|122|cm|abbr=on}} on 8 sheets. Mercator states that a friend, possibly Antoine Perrenot, had requested that he engrave this map from a manuscript copy, possibly by John Elder, a disaffected Scottish Catholic priest.{{sfn|Crane|2003|loc=Chapter 19}}{{sfn|Barber|1998|pp=43—77}}{{sfn|Woodward|1987|loc=Chapter 54}} Several copies of this map were cut and re-assembled for the [[#europe1570|atlas of Europe]]. The map is oriented with west at the top. 4 copies known.

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*'''1564 Lorraine''' ([[Lotharingia]])
:: A map commissioned by Duke René of Lorraine. The single copy of the map was never published{{sfn|Crane|2003|loc=Chapter 21 |p=213}} but two detailed maps of Lorraine (north and south) appear in the [[#atlas1595|Atlas of 1585]].

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*'''1569 world map''' [[Mercator 1569 world map|Full details]]

{{anchor|europe1570}}
*'''1570–1572 Atlas of Europe'''. [http://www.bl.uk/turning-the-pages/?id=223c7af8-bad6-4282-a684-17bf45bd0311&type=book View online version 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525212000/http://www.bl.uk/turning-the-pages/?id=223c7af8-bad6-4282-a684-17bf45bd0311&type=book |date=25 May 2019 }} and [http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/ttp/mercator/accessible/introduction.html version 2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190602005731/http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/ttp/mercator/accessible/introduction.html |date=2 June 2019 }}.
::A unique collection of maps assembled in the early 1570s, many of which are assembled from portions of Mercator's earlier maps: 9 constructed from Europe (1554), 6 from British Isles (1564) and 2 from the world map (1569). The map of Europe on pages 1 and 2 is taken from the 1569 world map. There are also 2 manuscript maps of Mercator and 13 maps are from the ''[[Theatrum Orbis Terrarum]]'' of [[Abraham Ortelius]].) Note that Mercator did not term this collection of maps an atlas.

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*'''1578 Ptolemy's Geographia''' [https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11054082?page=5 View online].
:: ''Tabulae geographicae Cl. Ptolemaei ad mentem auctoris restitutis ac emendatis.'' (Geographic maps according to Claudius Ptolemy, drawn in the spirit of the author and expanded by Gerard Mercator) Mercator's definitive version of Ptolemy's 28 maps. A second edition including the revised text of ''Geographia'' was published in 1584. ''Geographiae Libri Octo : recogniti iam et diligenter emendati.'' Example map: [https://web.archive.org/web/20151017113625/http://www.raremaps.com/gallery/enlarge/34861 Britain]

{{anchor|atlas1585}}
*'''1585 Atlas''' Galliae, Belgii Inferioris, Germaniae. (To view see [[#atlas1595|1595 Atlas]]).
::The first collection of 51 modern maps: 16 of France (with Switzerland), 9 corresponding to Belgium and the Netherlands and 26 of Germany. The three sections, each with a title page, dedication and supporting text, were sold together and separately. (Mercator did not term this collection of maps as an atlas.)

{{anchor|atlas1589}}
*'''1589 Atlas''' Italiae, Sclavoniae, Grecia. (To view see [[#atlas1595|1595 Atlas]]).
::A second collection of 23 modern maps: 16 of Italy (including Corsica), 3 of [[Styria (Slovenia)|Styria]] and the other Balkan countries, 4 of Greece. (Once again Mercator did not term this collection of maps as an atlas but in the preface he introduces Atlas as a mythical King of [[Mauretania]]—a learned philosopher, mathematician and astronomer, credited with the making of the first globe.) This collection has a dedication to [[Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany|Prince Ferdinando de' Medici]] to whom Mercator attributes ancestry from King Atlas.{{sfn|Sullivan|2000|p= 458 (pdf)}}

{{anchor|atlas1595}}
[[File:Atlas van Gerard Mercator (1595) - KBR 27-8-2016 11-33-21.jpg|thumb|The 1595 atlas in the collection of the [[Royal Library of Belgium]]]]
*'''1595 Atlas''' (published posthumously by Rumold Mercator) [https://www.loc.gov/item/map55000728/ View online].[https://web.archive.org/web/20160310032427/http://mail.nysoclib.org/mercator_atlas/mcrats.pdf Translation online].

::''Atlas Sive Cosmographicae Meditationes de Fabrica Mundi et Fabricati Figura.'' (Atlas or cosmographical meditations upon the creation of the universe, and the universe as created.) This is the first time that the name Atlas is used as a title of a collection of maps. Many library copies are [https://www.worldcat.org/search?q=Atlas+Sive+Cosmographicae&qt=results_page available worldwide]. There are also a number of freely available digital volumes such as those at the [https://www.loc.gov/item/map55000728/ Library of Congress] and [http://digital.library.pitt.edu/cgi-bin/t/text/text-idx?c=darlatlas;cc=darlatlas;view=toc;idno=31735060440876 Darlington Library] (University of Pittsburgh). High resolution facsimiles were made available by Octavo Publications (now defunct) but their CD is still available from retailers;{{efn|The Octavo CD may be obtained from retailers such as [http://store.finebooksmagazine.com/gerardus-mercator.aspx Fine Books]}} the CD is accompanied by an introduction to the atlas by {{harv|Karrow|2000}} and a translation of all the text {{harvtxt|Sullivan|2000}} and both of these are freely available in an [https://web.archive.org/web/20160310032427/http://mail.nysoclib.org/mercator_atlas/mcrats.pdf archived version] from the New York Society Library.

::The atlas includes further 28 maps: 16 of Britain, 4 of Denmark and one each of the polar regions, [[Iceland]], [[Norway]] with [[Sweden]], [[Prussia]], [[Livonia]], Russia, [[Lithuania]], [[Transylvania]] and [[Crimea]]. This collection of maps is dedicated to Queen Elizabeth of England and in the preface Mercator acknowledges the information he received from English mariners through Rumold who had spent much of his working life in [[London]]. The full atlas included all the maps of the previous two collections, making in all 102 new maps by Mercator. His heirs added 5 introductory maps before publication: world map and Europe by Rumold, Africa and Asia by grandson Gerard and America by grandson Michael. Nevertheless the atlas was incomplete: Spain was omitted and there were no detailed maps outside Europe. The maps are in a variety of projections.{{efn|Projections used in the 1585 atlas: see {{harvnb|Keuning|1947}} }}

::Less than half the pages in the atlas are maps. The title page shows King Atlas holding a globe, not supporting it, then the portrait of Mercator, a dedication to the Dukes of Cleves (father and son), a eulogy on the portrait, two epitaphs, the biography by Ghim, another epitaph by his grandson, two 'testimonial' letters, an ode on King Atlas by a grandson and Mercators own genealogy of Atlas in which he outlines his intended plans for the rest of the atlas: a description of the creation events, then a description of all that was created in the heavens (astronomy and astrology) and finally a description of the Earth, its geography. Of this grandiose plan all that was completed were the first and last objectives. The first part of the atlas, ''De mundi creatione ac fabrica liber'' (The creation of the world and the structure of the book), consists of 27 pages of text on the theology of creation, the events of creation, the elements created (such as animals, plants, sun, moon, stars, man), the Fall of Man and finally the salvation of creation through Christ.

::The second part of the Atlas contains the maps but each section has its own title page, dedication and preface, and every country is succinctly supplemented by text describing a mixture of history, royal genealogy, ecclesiastical hierarchies, list of universities and occasionally facets of contemporary economy. Every place mentioned in the text is given its geographic coordinates{{efn|Longitudes in the atlas are referred to the prime meridian of Ptolemy and differ from present day values by approximately 18 degrees (notwithstanding the errors in Mercator's data).}} to the nearest minute.

::As an example of the textual content the section on the British Isles mentions (amongst other things): alternative names; the etymology of ''British'' and its relation to [[woad]] painted tribes; climate; lack of [[snake]]s; the seemly manners of the populace; [[coroner]]s and ecclesiastical courts; lists of counties, bishoprics and universities; the structure of aristocracy; and much more, even a list of recommended reading.{{sfn|Sullivan|2000|pp= 165–190}}

===Books===
*{{citation
|last=Mercator |first=Gerardus |year= 1540
|title=Literarum latinarum, quas italicas, cursorias que vocant, scribendarum ratio (How to write the Latin letters which they call italic or cursive)
|location= Antwerp
|oclc=63443530}} Available online at the [http://www.rarebookroom.org/Control/mcrlit/index.html Library of Congress] and [http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/~db/0002/bsb00026193/images/ Das Münchener Digitalisierungszentrum]. It may be [https://download.digitale-sammlungen.de/BOOKS/download.pl?id=00026193&nr=1 downloaded as a pdf] from the latter. This book is the subject of a monograph which includes a translation of the text {{harv|Osley|1969}}. 
*{{citation
|last=Mercator |first=Gerardus |year= 1554
|title=Declaratio insigniorum utilitatum quae sunt in globo terrestri : coelesti, et annulo astronomico ad invictissimum romanum imperatorem Carolum Quintum. (A description of the most important applications of the terrestrial and celestial globes and the astronomical ring. For the most invincible Roman Emperor Charles V.)
|location= Duisburg}}. Reprinted in 1868 with a commentary by Jean van Raemdonck. ({{oclc|459842538}}). For the Latin text and a German translation see {{harvtxt|Krücken|1996}}. A rough (partial) translation is on [[:q:Gerardus Mercator#A Pamphlet to the emperor Charles V|wikiquote]]
*{{citation
|last=Mercator |first=Gerardus |year= 1569
|title=Chronologia, Hoc Est Temporvm Demonstratio Exactissima, Ab Initio Mvndi, Vsqve Ad Annvm Domini M.D.LXVIII. Ex Eclipsibvs Et Observationibvs Astronomicis omnium temporum concinnata. ('A chronology, a very accurate of recorded time from the beginning of the world until AD1568. Elaborated from astronomical observations of eclipses for all times.'')
|publisher=Arnoldi Birkmanni |location= Duisburg
|oclc=165787166}}. There are PDF downloads, at  the [http://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/ Bayerische Bibliothek] ([http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/~db/bsb00001232/images title page]) and also the [https://www.hathitrust.org/ Hathi Trust] ([http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/011360042 catalogue] and [http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ucm.532025807x;view=1up;seq=5 title page]).
*{{citation
|last= Mercator |first=Gerardus |year= 1592
|title=Evangelicae historiae quadripartita monas sive harmonia quatuor Evangelistarum 
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GBdSAAAAcAAJ}}. (Harmonization of the Gospels.) Many other copies [https://www.worldcat.org/search?q=Evangelicae+historiae+quadripartita+monas+sive+harmonia+quatuor+Evangelistarum&qt=owc_search listed at World Cat].
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