Editing French grammar (section)

==Negation==
French usually expresses negation in two parts, with the [[Grammatical particle|particle]] {{Lang|fr|ne}} attached to the verb, and one or more negative words ([[connegative]]s) that modify the verb or one of its [[Argument (linguistics)|arguments]]. Negation encircles a conjugated verb with {{Lang|fr|ne}} after the subject and the connegative after the verb, if the verb is [[finite verb|finite]] or a [[gerund]]. However, both parts of the negation come before the targeted verb when it is in its [[infinitive]] form. For example:
* {{Lang|fr|Je les ai pris}} 'I took them' → {{Lang|fr|Je '''ne''' les ai '''pas''' pris}} 'I did not take them'
* {{Lang|fr|Je voudrais regarder un film et m'endormir}} 'I would like to watch a movie and fall asleep' → {{Lang|fr|Je voudrais regarder un film et '''ne''' '''pas''' m'endormir.}} 'I would like to watch a movie and '''not''' fall asleep'

Other negative words used in combination with {{Lang|fr|ne}} are:
* negative adverbs
:{{Lang|fr|ne … plus}} — not anymore, no longer
:{{Lang|fr|ne … jamais}} — never
:{{Lang|fr|ne … nulle part}} – nowhere
:{{Lang|fr|ne … guère}} — not much, hardly (literary)
:{{Lang|fr|ne … point / aucunement / nullement}} — not, not at all (literary)
* negative pronouns
:{{Lang|fr|ne … rien}} — nothing
:{{Lang|fr|ne … personne}} — nobody
* others
:(determiner) {{Lang|fr|ne … aucun}} — no/not any (also {{lang|fr|nul}}, literary)
:(restrictive particle) {{Lang|fr|ne … que}} — only

Examples:
* {{Lang|fr|Je '''ne''' sais '''pas'''.}} — I do not know.
* {{Lang|fr|Il '''ne''' fume '''plus'''.}} — He does not smoke anymore.
* {{Lang|fr|Nous '''n{{`}}'''avons vu '''personne'''.}} — We did not see anybody.
* {{Lang|fr|Elle ''' n{{`}}'''a '''rien''' bu.}} — She didn't drink anything.
* {{Lang|fr|Je '''n{{`}}'''ai '''aucune''' idée.}} — I have no idea.
* {{Lang|fr|Vous '''ne''' mangez '''que''' des légumes ?}} — You only eat vegetables?

The negative adverbs (and {{Lang|fr|rien}}) follow finite verbs but precede infinitives (along with {{Lang|fr|ne}}):
* {{Lang|fr|Il prétend ne pas/ne jamais/ne rien fumer.}} — He claims not to smoke/to never smoke/to smoke nothing.

Moreover, it is possible for {{Lang|fr|rien}} and {{Lang|fr|personne}} to be used as the subject of a sentence, which moves them to the beginning of the sentence (before the {{Lang|fr|ne}}):
* {{Lang|fr|Rien n'est certain.}} — Nothing is certain.
* {{Lang|fr|Personne n'est arrivé.}} — Nobody came.

Several negative words (other than {{Lang|fr|pas}}) can appear in the same sentence, but the sentence is still usually interpreted as a simple negation. When another negative word occurs with {{Lang|fr|pas}}, a double negation interpretation usually arises, but this construction is criticised.
* {{Lang|fr|Elle n'a '''plus''' '''jamais''' '''rien''' dit à '''personne'''.}} — She never said anything else to anybody.
* {{Lang|fr|Elle n'a '''pas''' vu '''personne'''.}} — She did not see nobody (i.e., she saw somebody).

=== Colloquial usage ===
In colloquial French, it is common to drop the {{Lang|fr|ne}}, although this can create some ambiguity with the {{Lang|fr|ne … plus}} construction when written down, as {{Lang|fr|plus}} could mean either 'more' or 'not anymore'. Generally when {{Lang|fr|plus}} is used to mean {{Lang|en|more}}, the final {{vr|s}} is pronounced ({{IPA|fr|plys|}}), whereas it is never pronounced when used to mean 'not anymore' ({{IPA|fr|ply|}}).

As an example, the informal sentence {{Lang|fr|Il y en a plus}} could be pronounced with the final {{IPA|fr|s|}} ({{IPA|fr|il i ɑ̃n a plys, jɑ̃n a plys|}}) to mean "there is more", or it could be pronounced without it ({{IPA|fr|il i ɑ̃n a ply, jɑ̃n a ply|}}) to mean "there is none left".

=== Independent ''ne'' ===
In certain, mostly literary constructions, {{lang|fr|ne}} can express negation by itself (without {{lang|fr|pas}} or another negative word). The four verbs that can use this construction are {{lang|fr|pouvoir}} ("to be able to"), {{lang|fr|savoir}} ("to know"), {{lang|fr|oser}} ("to dare"), and {{lang|fr|cesser}} ("to cease").
* (standard, {{lang|fr|ne}} + {{lang|fr|pas}}) {{lang|fr|Je '''n{{'}}'''ai '''pas''' pu venir.}} — "I was not able to come."
* (casual, ''pas'' only) {{lang|fr|J'ai '''pas''' pu venir.}} [same]
* (literary, ''ne'' only) {{lang|fr|Je '''n{{'}}'''ai pu venir.}} [same];<br />''cf.'' phrase {{lang|fr|Je '''ne''' sais quoi}} — "I do not know what [it is]" remaining in colloquial speech as a [[Fossilization (linguistics)|fossilized]] phrase

=== Expletive ''ne'' ===
In certain cases in formal French, the word {{lang|fr|ne}} can be used without signifying negation; the {{lang|fr|ne}} in such instances is known as expletive {{lang|fr|ne}} (French: {{lang|fr|ne explétif}}):

:{{lang|fr|J'ai peur que cela '''ne''' se reproduise.}} — "I am afraid that it might happen again."
:{{lang|fr|Il est arrivé avant que nous '''n{{'}}'''ayons commencé.}} — "He arrived before we started."
:{{lang|fr|Ils sont plus nombreux que tu '''ne''' le crois.}} — "There are more of them than you think."

Expletive {{lang|fr|ne}} is found in finite subordinate clauses (never before an infinitive). It is characteristic of literary rather than colloquial style.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.lawlessfrench.com/grammar/ne-expletif/ | title = Ne explétif – French Negation | publisher = Lawless French | first = Laura K | last = Lawless | access-date = 2007-02-25 }}</ref> In other registers French tends to not use any negation at all in such clauses, e.g., {{lang|fr|J'ai peur que cela se reproduise}}.

The following contexts allow expletive {{lang|fr|ne}}
* the complement clause of verbs expressing fear or avoidance: {{lang|fr|craindre}} (to fear), {{lang|fr|avoir peur}} (to be afraid), {{lang|fr|empêcher}} (to prevent), {{lang|fr|éviter}} (to avoid)
* the complement clause of verbs expressing doubt or denial: {{lang|fr|douter}} (to doubt), {{lang|fr|nier}} (to deny)
* [[adverbial clause]]s introduced by the following expressions: {{lang|fr|avant que}} (before), {{lang|fr|à moins que}} (unless), {{lang|fr|de peur/crainte que}} (for fear that)
* comparative constructions expressing inequality: {{lang|fr|autre}} (other), {{lang|fr|meilleur}} (better), {{lang|fr|plus fort}} (stronger), {{lang|fr|moins intelligent}} (less intelligent), etc.