Editing Frederick the Great (section)

== Policies ==
=== Administrative modernisation ===
[[File:Friedrich Zweite Alt.jpg|thumb|alt=Portrait painting of Frederick as an old man|upright=.8|Portrait of Frederick by [[Anton Graff]] (1781, [[Schloss Charlottenburg]], Berlin).]]
In his earliest published work, the ''Anti-Machiavel'',{{sfn|Frederick II|1740a}} and his later {{lang|fr|Testament politique}} (''Political Testament''),{{sfn|Frederick II|1752}} Frederick wrote that the sovereign was the first servant of the state.{{efn|In the second printing of the ''Anti-Machiavel'', Voltaire changed {{lang|fr|premier domestique}} (''first servant'') to {{lang|fr|premier Magistrat}} (''first magistrate''). Compare Frederick's words from the handwritten manuscript{{sfn|Frederick II|1740b|p=[https://archive.org/details/antimachiaveloue00fred/page/10 10]|ps=: {{lang|fr|Il se trouve que le souverain, bien loin d'être le maître absolu des peuples qui sont sous sa domination, n'en est en lui-même que le premier domestique.}}[It turns out that the sovereign, far from being the absolute master of the peoples who are under his domination, is himself only the first servant.]}} to Voltaire's edited 1740 version.{{sfn|Frederick II|1740c|p=[https://archive.org/details/antimachiavelou00voltgoog/page/n24 2]}}}} Frederick helped transform Prussia from a European backwater to an economically strong and politically reformed state.{{sfn|Sainte-Beuve|1877|pp=[https://archive.org/details/mondaychats00sainuoft/page/255 255–257]}} He protected his industries with high tariffs and minimal restrictions on domestic trade. He increased the freedom of speech in press and literature,{{sfnm|Clark|2006|1p=[https://archive.org/details/ironkingdomrised00chri/page/256 256]|Mitford|1970|2p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreat00mitf_0/page/88 88]}} abolished most uses of judicial [[torture]],{{sfnm|Asprey|1986|1p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatma00aspr/page/n173 145]|MacDonogh|2000|2p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatli00macd/page/140 140]}} and limited which crimes could be punished by death.{{sfn|Clark|2006|p=[https://archive.org/details/ironkingdomrised00chri/page/252 252]}} Working with his Grand Chancellor [[Samuel von Cocceji]], he reformed the judicial system and made it more efficient. He also moved the courts toward greater legal equality of all citizens by removing special courts for special social classes.{{sfn|Weil|1960|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/844051 240]}} The reform was completed after Frederick's death, resulting in the [[General State Laws for the Prussian States|Prussian Law Code]] of 1794, which balanced absolutism with human rights and corporate privilege with equality before the law. Reception to the law code was mixed as it was often viewed as contradictory.{{sfn|Schieder|1983|p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreat0000schi/page/186 186]}}

Frederick strove to put Prussia's fiscal system in order. In January 1750, [[Johann Philipp Graumann]] was appointed as Frederick's confidential adviser on finance, military affairs, and royal possessions, and the Director-General of all [[Mint (facility)|mint facilities]].{{sfn|Schui|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=v6xahmxWS3YC&pg=PA92 92]}} Graumann's currency reform slightly lowered the silver content of [[Prussian thaler]] from {{frac|12}} Cologne mark of silver to {{frac|14}},{{sfn|Tuttle|1888|pp=[https://archive.org/details/historyprussia00adamgoog/page/n111 89–90]}} which brought the metal content of the thaler into alignment with its face value,{{sfn|Bundesbank|2013}} and it standardised the Prussian coinage system.{{sfn|Schui|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=v6xahmxWS3YC&pg=PA92 92]}} As a result, Prussian coins, which had been leaving the country nearly as fast as they were minted,{{sfn|Tuttle|1888|pp=[https://archive.org/details/historyprussia00adamgoog/page/n111 89–90]}} remained in circulation in Prussia.{{sfn|Shaw|1895|pp=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924032520243/page/n249 202–203]}} Frederick estimated that he earned about one million thalers in profits on the [[seignorage]].{{sfn|Tuttle|1888|pp=[https://archive.org/details/historyprussia00adamgoog/page/n111 89–90]}} The coin eventually became universally accepted beyond Prussia and helped increase industry and trade.{{sfn|Bundesbank|2013}} A gold coin, the [[Friedrich d'or]], was also minted to oust the [[Ducat#Ducats of Netherlands|Dutch ducat]] from the Baltic trade.{{sfn|Adler|2020|p=[{{Google books|id=MUHWDwAAQBAJ|pg=PA120|plainurl=yes}} 120]}} However, the fixed ratio between gold and silver led to the gold coins being perceived as more valuable, which caused them to leave circulation in Prussia. Unable to meet Frederick's expectations for profit, Graumann was removed in 1754.{{sfn|Adler|2020|p=[{{Google books|id=MUHWDwAAQBAJ|pg=PA120|plainurl=yes}} 120]}}

Although Frederick's debasement of the coinage to fund the Seven Years' War left the Prussian monetary system in disarray,{{sfn|Shaw|1895|pp=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924032520243/page/n249 202–203]}} the Mint Edict of May 1763 brought it back to stability by fixing rates at which depreciated coins would be accepted and requiring tax payments in currency of prewar value. This resulted in a shortage of ready money, but Frederick controlled prices by releasing the grain stocks he held in reserve for military campaigns. Many other rulers soon followed the steps of Frederick in reforming their own currencies.{{sfn|Henderson|1963|p=[https://archive.org/details/studiesineconomi0000hend/page/48–49 48]}} The functionality and stability of the reform made the Prussian monetary system the standard in Northern Germany.{{sfn|Schui|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=v6xahmxWS3YC&pg=PA93 93]}}

Around 1751, Frederick founded the [[Emden Company]] to promote trade with China. He introduced the [[lottery]], [[fire insurance]], and a [[Giro (banking)|giro]] discount and credit bank to stabilise the economy.{{sfn|Schieder|1983|p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreat0000schi/page/207 207]}} One of Frederick's achievements after the Seven Years' War included the control of grain prices, whereby government storehouses would enable the civilian population to survive in needy regions, where the harvest was poor.{{sfn|Ritter|1936|p=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_520010744/page/178 178]}} He commissioned [[Johann Ernst Gotzkowsky]] to promote the trade and – to take on the competition with France – put a [[silk]] factory where 1,500 people found employment. Frederick followed Gotzkowsky's recommendations in the field of toll levies and import restrictions. When Gotzkowsky asked for a [[deferral]] during the [[Amsterdam banking crisis of 1763]], Frederick took over his [[porcelain]] factory, now known as [[Royal Porcelain Factory, Berlin|KPM]].{{sfn|Henderson|1963|p=[https://archive.org/details/studiesineconomi0000hend/page/68 68]}}

Frederick modernised the Prussian civil service and promoted religious tolerance throughout his realm to attract more settlers in East Prussia. With the help of French experts, he organised a system of [[indirect taxation]], which provided the state with more revenue than direct taxation; though French officials administering it may have pocketed some of the profit.{{sfn|Henderson|1963|pp=[https://archive.org/details/studiesineconomi0000hend/page/63 63], [https://archive.org/details/studiesineconomi0000hend/page/69 69–70]}} He established new regulations for tax officials to reduce graft.{{sfn|Schui|2011|pp=371–399}} In 1781, Frederick made coffee a royal monopoly and employed disabled soldiers, the [[coffee sniffers]], to spy on citizens illegally roasting coffee, much to the annoyance of the general population.{{sfn|Liberles|2012|p=[{{Google book|id=pMtiGgdGSiQC|page=29|plainurl=yes}} 29]}}

Though Frederick started many reforms during his reign, his ability to see them to fulfillment was not as disciplined or thorough as his military successes.{{sfn|Ozment|2005|p=[https://archive.org/details/mightyfortressne00ozme/page/141 141]}}

=== Religion ===
[[File:Berlin, Mitte, Bebelplatz, Hedwigskathedrale 02.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of the front elevation of a domed cathedral|[[St. Hedwig's Cathedral]], the first Roman Catholic church built in Berlin since the Reformation, was erected by the sanction of Frederick, who also sketched its design.{{sfn|St. Hedwig's Cathedral|2019|ps=: {{lang|de|Die Hedwigskirche...war die erste katholische Kirche, die in der Residenzstadt Friedrichs des Großen nach der Reformation gebaut werden durfte...Der Bau geschah auf Wunsch der katholischen Gemeinde und mit der Zustimmung Friedrichs des Großen.}} [The Hedwig Church...was the first Roman Catholic church that was allowed to be built in the royal seat of Frederick the Great after the Reformation...The construction was carried out with the sanction of Frederick the Great.]}}]]

In contrast to his devoutly Calvinist father, Frederick was a [[Religious skepticism|religious sceptic]], and has been described as a [[Deism|deist]].{{sfnm|1a1=Bonney|1a2=Trim|1y=2006|1p=[{{Google books|id=jQJuObBQerIC|pg=PA154|plainurl=yes}} 154]|2a1=Fraser|2y=2001|2p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatki00fras/page/58 58]|3a1=MacDonogh|3y=2000|3p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatli00macd/page/241 241]}}{{efn|He remained critical of Christianity.{{sfn|Mitford|1970|p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreat00mitf_0/page/75 75]}} See Frederick's {{lang|fr|De la Superstition et de la Religion}} (''Superstition and Religion'') in which he says in the context of Christianity in Brandenburg: "It is a shame to human understanding, that at the beginning of so learned an age as the XVIIIth [18th century] all manner of superstitions were yet subsisting."{{sfn|Frederick II|1750b}}}} Frederick was pragmatic about religious faith. Three times during his life, he presented his own confession of Christian faith: during his imprisonment after Katte's execution in 1730, after his conquest of Silesia in 1741, and just before the start of the Seven Years' War in 1756. In each case, these confessions also served personal or political goals.{{sfn|Kloes|2016|pp=102–108}}

He tolerated all faiths in his realm, but Protestantism remained the favoured religion, and Catholics were not chosen for higher state positions.{{sfn|Holborn|1982|p=[{{Google book|id=yeXYMV3CZ0IC|page=274|plainurl=yes}} 274]}} Frederick wanted development throughout the country, adapted to the needs of each region. He was interested in attracting a diversity of skills, whether from Jesuit teachers, Huguenot citizens, or Jewish merchants and bankers. Frederick retained [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] as teachers in Silesia, [[Warmia]], and the [[Netze District]], recognising their educational activities as an asset for the nation.{{sfn|MacDonogh|2000|pp=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatli00macd/page/364 364–366]}} He continued to support them after their suppression by [[Pope Clement XIV]].{{sfn|Fraser|2001|p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatki00fras/page/241 241]}} He befriended the Roman Catholic Prince-Bishop of Warmia, [[Ignacy Krasicki]], whom he asked to consecrate St. Hedwig's Cathedral in 1773.{{sfn|MacDonogh|2000|p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatli00macd/page/363 363]}} He accepted countless Protestant weavers from Bohemia, who were fleeing from the devoutly Catholic rule of Maria Theresa, granting them freedom from taxes and military service.{{sfn|Brunhouse|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3LylIwXu0xsC&pg=PA419 419]}} Constantly looking for new colonists, he encouraged immigration by repeatedly emphasising that nationality and religion were of no concern to him. This policy allowed Prussia's population to recover very quickly from its considerable losses during Frederick's three wars.{{sfn|Ritter|1936|p=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_520010744/page/180 180]}}

Though Frederick was known to be more tolerant of Jews and Roman Catholics than many neighbouring German states, his practical-minded tolerance was not fully unprejudiced. Frederick wrote in his {{lang|fr|Testament politique}}:

<blockquote>We have too many Jews in the towns. They are needed on the Polish border because in these areas Hebrews alone perform trade. As soon as you get away from the frontier, the Jews become a disadvantage, they form cliques, they deal in contraband and get up to all manner of rascally tricks which are detrimental to Christian burghers and merchants. I have never persecuted anyone from this or any other sect; I think, however, it would be prudent to pay attention, so that their numbers do not increase.{{sfn|MacDonogh|2000|p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatli00macd/page/347 347]}}</blockquote>

Frederick was less tolerant of Catholicism in his occupied territories. In Silesia, he disregarded [[Canon law of the Catholic Church|canon law]] to install clergy who were loyal to him.{{sfn|Fay|1945|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/1843138 528]}} In Polish Prussia, he confiscated the Roman Catholic Church's goods and property,{{sfn|Konopczyński|1919|p=[https://archive.org/details/briefoutlineofpo00kono/page/46 46]}} making clergy dependent on the government for their pay and defining how they were to perform their duties.{{sfn|Philippson|1905|pp=[https://archive.org/details/historyofallnati15wrig/page/227 227–228]}}

Like many leading Enlightenment figures, Frederick was a [[Freemasonry|Freemason]],{{sfn|Waite|1921|p=[https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia0000wait/page/n355 306]}} having joined during a trip to Brunswick in 1738.{{sfn|Kugler|1840|p=[https://archive.org/details/pictorialhistor00menzgoog/page/n142 124]}} His membership legitimised the group's presence in Prussia and protected it against charges of subversion.{{sfn|Melton2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QZovusQ1SjYC&pg=PA267 267]}} In 1786, he became the First Sovereign Grand Commander of the Supreme Council of the 33rd Degree; his [[double-headed eagle]] emblem was used for 32nd and 33rd degree Masons following the adoption of seven additional degrees to the Masonic Rite.{{sfn|Gaffney|2020}}

Frederick's religious views resulted in his condemnation by the anti-revolutionary French Jesuit, [[Augustin Barruel]]. In his 1797 book, {{lang|fr|Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire du Jacobinisme}} (''[[Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism]]''), Barruel described an influential [[conspiracy theory]] that accused King Frederick of taking part in a plot which led to the outbreak of the [[French Revolution]] and having been the secret "protector and adviser" of fellow-conspirators Voltaire, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and [[Denis Diderot]], who all sought "to destroy Christianity" and foment "rebellion against Kings and Monarchs".{{sfn|Barruel|1799|p=[https://archive.org/details/memoirsillustra01conggoog/page/n24 1]}}

=== Environment and agriculture ===
[[File:Der König überall2.JPG|thumb|alt=Painting of Frederick on a farm with peasants|''The King Everywhere'' by {{ill|Robert Warthmüller|de}} (1886, [[German Historical Museum]], Berlin). Frederick is depicted inspecting a potato harvest.]]
Frederick was keenly interested in land use, especially [[drainage|draining]] swamps and opening new [[farmland]] for colonisers to increase the kingdom's food supply. He called it {{lang|de|Peuplierungspolitik}} (peopling policy). About 1,200 new villages were founded in his reign.{{sfn|Blackbourn|2006|p=[https://archive.org/details/conquestofnature00davi/page/50 50]}} He told Voltaire, "Whoever [[soil quality|improves the soil]], cultivates [[Barren vegetation|land lying waste]] and drains swamps, is making conquests from barbarism".{{sfn|Blackbourn|2006|p=[https://archive.org/details/conquestofnature00davi/page/45 45]}} Using improved technology enabled him to create new farmland through a massive drainage programme in the country's [[Oderbruch]] [[marsh]]land. This programme created roughly {{convert|60000|ha}} of new farmland, but [[habitat loss|eliminated]] vast swaths of [[natural habitat]], destroyed the region's [[biodiversity]], and displaced numerous native plant and animal communities. Frederick saw this project as the "taming" and "conquering" of nature,{{sfn|Blackbourn|2006|p=[https://archive.org/details/conquestofnature00davi/page/75 75]}} considering uncultivated land "useless",{{sfn|Blackbourn|2006|p=[https://archive.org/details/conquestofnature00davi/page/43 43]}} an attitude that reflected his enlightenment era, [[rationalist]] sensibilities.{{sfn|Blackbourn|2006|p=[https://archive.org/details/conquestofnature00davi/page/19 19]}} He presided over the construction of canals for bringing crops to market, and introduced new crops, especially the [[potato]] and the [[turnip]], to the country. For this, he was sometimes called ''Der Kartoffelkönig'' (the Potato King).{{sfn|The Potato King|2012|ps=: {{lang|de|Entgegen der weitverbreiteten Meinung habe Friedrich II. die Kartoffel nicht in Preußen eingeführt...Allerdings habe sich Friedrich sehr um ihre Verbreitung gekümmert.}} [Contrary to popular opinion, Friedrich II did not introduce the potato in Prussia...However, Frederick took great care in spreading it.]}}

Frederick's potato campaign demonstrated an enlightenment view of promoting scientific agriculture and challenging tradition for the benefit of the populace.{{sfn|Robinson|2021}}

Frederick's interest in [[land reclamation]] may have resulted from his upbringing. As a child, his father, Frederick William I, made young Frederick work in the region's provinces, teaching the boy about the area's agriculture and geography. This created an interest in [[agriculture|cultivation]] and development that the boy retained when he became ruler.{{sfn|Blackbourn|2006|pp=[https://archive.org/details/conquestofnature00davi/page/31 31–32]}}

Frederick founded the first [[veterinary school]] in Prussia. Unusually for the time and his aristocratic background, he criticised [[hunting]] as cruel, rough and uneducated. When someone once asked Frederick why he did not wear [[spur]]s on horseback, he replied, "Try sticking a fork into your naked stomach, and you will soon see why."{{sfn|Mitford|1970|p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreat00mitf_0/page/61 61]}} He loved dogs and his horse and wanted to be buried with his greyhounds. In 1752, he wrote to his sister Wilhelmine that people indifferent to loyal animals would not be devoted to their human comrades. He was also close to nature and issued decrees to protect plants.{{sfn|Das Gupta|2013}}

=== Arts and education ===
[[File:Adolph Menzel - Flötenkonzert Friedrichs des Großen in Sanssouci - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Painting of Frederick playing the flute with court musicians|''[[Frederick the Great Playing the Flute at Sanssouci|The Flute Concert of Sanssouci]]'' by [[Adolph Menzel]] (1852, [[Alte Nationalgalerie]], Berlin).  Frederick is depicted playing the flute in his music room at [[Sanssouci]] as [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach|C. P. E. Bach]] accompanies him on a fortepiano by [[Gottfried Silbermann]].]]

Frederick was a patron of music.{{sfnm|1a1=Kennedy|1a2=Bourne|1y=2006|1p=[https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000kenn_w6e0/page/318 318]|2a1=Pulver|2y=1912|2p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/907651 599]}} The court musicians he supported included [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach|C. P. E. Bach]], [[Carl Heinrich Graun]] and [[Franz Benda]].{{sfn|Reilly|1975|p=[https://archive.org/details/onplayingflute00quan/page/n25 xxv]}} A meeting with [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] in 1747 in Potsdam led to Bach's writing ''[[The Musical Offering]]''.{{sfn|Gaines|2006|pp=[https://archive.org/details/eveninginpalaceo0000gain/page/n15 1–12]}} He was a talented musician and composer in his own right, playing the [[Western concert flute|transverse flute]],{{sfnm|Oleskiewicz|2012|1p=[https://www.nfaonline.org/docs/default-source/fq-issues/2012fall.pdf?sfvrsn=1459f4a3_0 25]|Walthall|1986|2pp=[https://web.archive.org/web/20210227235156/https://www.nfaonline.org/docs/default-source/fq-issues/1986fall.pdf?sfvrsn=15b6af80_0 5–10]}} and composing 121 [[sonata]]s for flute and [[Basso continuo|continuo]], four [[concerto]]s for flute and [[String orchestra|strings]], four [[sinfonia]]s,{{sfnm|Bourke|1947|1p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/854712 74]|IMSLP|2018|2p=}} three [[March (music)|military marches]] and seven arias.{{sfn|Loewy|1990|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/40374049 118]}} Additionally, the ''[[Hohenfriedberger Marsch]]'' was allegedly written by Frederick to commemorate his victory in the Battle of Hohenfriedberg.{{sfn|Mitford|1970|p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreat00mitf_0/page/162 163]}} His flute sonatas were often composed in collaboration with [[Johann Joachim Quantz]],{{sfn|Reilly|1975|pp=[https://archive.org/details/onplayingflute00quan/page/n19 xix], [https://archive.org/details/onplayingflute00quan/page/n23, xxiii]}} who was Frederick's occasional music tutor in his youth{{sfnm|Asprey|1986|1p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatma00aspr/page/n71 42]|Kugler|1840|2p=[https://archive.org/details/pictorialhistor00menzgoog/page/n73 55]|MacDonogh|2000|3p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatli00macd/page/38 39]}} and joined his court as composer and flute maker in 1741.{{sfn|Reilly|1975|pp=[https://archive.org/details/onplayingflute00quan/page/n23 xxii–xxiii]}} Frederick's flute sonatas are written in the [[Baroque music|Baroque style]] in which flute plays the melody, sometimes imitating operatic vocal styles like the [[aria]] and [[recitative]], while the accompaniment was usually played by just one instrument per part to highlight the delicate sound of the flute.{{sfn|Oleskiewicz|2012|pp=[https://www.nfaonline.org/docs/default-source/fq-issues/2012fall.pdf?sfvrsn=1459f4a3_0 22–24]}}

Frederick wrote sketches, outlines and libretti for opera that were included as part of the repertoire for the Berlin Opera House. These works, which were often completed in collaboration with Graun,{{efn|Frederick's relationship to Graun is illustrated by his comment upon hearing news of Graun's death in Berlin, which he received eight days after the Battle of Prague: "Eight days ago, I lost my best field-marshal (Schwerin), and now my Graun. I shall create no more field-marshals or conductors until I can find another Schwerin and another Graun."{{sfn|Pulver|1912|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/907651 600]}}}} included the operas ''Coriolano'' (1749), ''Silla'' (1753), [[Montezuma (Graun)|''Montezuma'']] (1755), and ''Il tempio d'Amore'' (1756).{{sfn|Forment|2012|loc=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/23256492 Table 1, pp. 3–4]}} Frederick saw opera as playing an important role in imparting enlightenment philosophy, using it to critique superstition and the [[Pietism]] that still held sway in Prussia.{{sfn|Forment|2012|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/23256492 1]}} He attempted to broaden access to opera by making admission to it free.{{sfn|Terne|2008|loc=[https://web.archive.org/web/20210912180447/https://perspectivia.net/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/ploneimport_derivate_00000044/Terne_Hofoper.doc.pdf paras. <4>–<5>]|ps=: {{lang|de|Der Berliner Neubau sollte hingegen grundsätzlich allen Berlinern und den auswärtigen Besuchern der
preußischen Hauptstadt zugänglich sein...Der Eintritt in die Oper war unentgeltlich... }}[The new Berlin building [The Opera House] was intended for all Berliners and foreign visitors to the Prussian capital...Admission to the opera was free...]}}

Frederick also wrote philosophical works,{{sfn|Lifschitz|2021|pp=[{{Google book|id=XNnnDwAAQBAJ|page=7|plainurl=yes}} vii–xlii]}} publishing some of his writings under the title of ''The Works of a Sans-Souci Philosopher''.{{sfn|Aramayo|2019|pp=[{{Google book|id=3_eyDwAAQBAJ|page=63|plainurl=yes}} 63–64]}} Frederick corresponded with key French [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] figures, including Voltaire, who at one point declared Frederick to be a [[Philosopher king|philosopher-king]],{{sfn|Aramayo|2019|pp=[{{Google book|id=3_eyDwAAQBAJ|page=75|plainurl=yes}} 75–76]}} and the [[Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis d'Argens|Marquis d'Argens]], whom he appointed as [[Chamberlain (office)|Royal Chamberlain]] in 1742 and later as the Director of the [[Prussian Academy of Arts]] and [[Berlin State Opera]].{{sfn|Sgard}} His openness to philosophy had its limits. He did not admire the [[Encyclopédie|''encyclopédistes'']] or the French intellectual avant-garde of his time,{{sfn|Israel|2006|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/30141040 535]}} though he did shelter [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] from persecution for years. Once he ascended the Prussian throne, he found it increasingly difficult to apply the philosophical ideas of his youth to his role as king.{{sfn|Aramayo|2019|pp=[{{Google book|id=3_eyDwAAQBAJ|page=13|plainurl=yes}} 13–14]}}

Like many European rulers of the time who were influenced by the prestige of [[Louis XIV|Louis XIV of France]] and his court,{{sfnm|Kugler|1840|1p=[https://archive.org/details/pictorialhistor00menzgoog/page/n40 22]|Schieder|1983|2pp=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreat0000schi/page/3 3–4]}} Frederick adopted French tastes and manners,{{sfnm|Fraser|2001|1p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatki00fras/page/20 20]|Reddaway|1904|2p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatri00redd/page/50 50]}} though in Frederick's case, the extent of his [[Francophile]] tendencies might have been a reaction to the austerity of the family environment created by his father, who had a deep aversion for France and promoted an austere culture.{{sfn|Ashton|2019|pp=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200716155547/http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n5194/pdf/11_ashton.pdf 121–122]}} He was educated by French tutors,{{sfnm|Kugler|1840|1p=[https://archive.org/details/pictorialhistor00menzgoog/page/n48 30]|Reddaway|1904|2p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatri00redd/page/28 28]}} and almost all the books in his library were written in French.{{sfn|Mitford|1970|p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreat00mitf_0/page/22 22]}} French was Frederick's preferred language for speaking and writing, though he had to rely on proofreaders to correct his difficulties with spelling.{{sfn|MacDonogh|2000|p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatli00macd/page/117 117]}}

Though Frederick used German as his working language with his administration and with the army, he claimed to have never learned it properly{{sfnm|Gooch|1947|1p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatru0000gooc_n4j0/page/112 112]|MacDonogh|2000|2p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatli00macd/page/31 31]}} and never fully mastered speaking or writing it.{{sfnm|Fraser|2001|1p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatki00fras/page/234 234]|Mitford|1970|2p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreat00mitf_0/page/20 20]}} He disliked the German language,{{sfn|Smeall|2010|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20210429043403/https://central.bac-lac.gc.ca/.item?id=NR77555&op=pdf&app=Library&oclc_number=1019473467 227]}} thinking it inharmonious and awkward.{{sfn|Gundolf|1972|pp=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatpr00pare/page/210 210–217]}} In the essay ''De la littérature allemande'' (On German Literature, 1780), Frederick commented that German authors "pile parenthesis upon parenthesis, and often you find only at the end of an entire page the verb on which depends the meaning of the whole sentence".{{efn|French: "Ils entassent parenthèse sur parenthèse, et souvent vous ne trouvez qu'au bout d'une page entière le verbe d'où dépend le sens de toute la phrase".<ref name="Ueber#">{{Cite web |title=De la littérature allemande, des défauts qu'on peut lui reprocher, quelles en sont les causes, et par quels moyens on peut les corriger |trans-title=On German literature, the faults that can be blamed on it, what are their causes, and by what means can be corrected |url=http://friedrich.uni-trier.de/fr/oeuvres/7/id/004000000/text/ |access-date=12 October 2024 |language=fr}}</ref>}}{{sfn|MacDonogh|2000|p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatli00macd/page/370 370]}} He considered the German culture of his time, particularly literature and theatre,{{efn|Frederick harshly criticized the great public success of [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]'s drama ''[[Götz von Berlichingen (Goethe)|Götz von Berlichingen]]'', especially due to its similarity to the detested [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], above all because, for the first time in Germany, the three [[Classical unities|Aristotelian unities]], which for Frederick were "sacred",<ref>{{Cite book |title=Goethes Werke in zehn Bänden – Dritter Band |trans-title=Goethe's works in ten volumes – Third volume |last=Goethe |first=Johann Wolfgang |publisher=Artemis Verlags AG |location=Zurich |pages=776–777 |language=de}} Afterword by Wulf Sagebrecht.</ref> were violated: "Ces règles ne sont point arbitraires; vous les trouvez dans la Poétique d'Aristote… comme les seuls moyens de rendre les tragédies intéressantes" (These rules are not arbitrary; you find them in Aristotle's ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]''… as the only means of making tragedies interesting). These works were becoming popular at the time: "Mais voilà encore un ''Götz von Berlichingen'' qui paraît sur la scène, imitation détestable de ces mauvaises pièces anglaises; et le parterre applaudit et demande avec enthousiasme la répétition de ces dégoûtantes platitudes" (But here is another ''Götz von Berlichingen'' who appears on the stage, a detestable imitation of these bad English plays; and the audience applauds and enthusiastically demands a repetition of these disgusting platitudes).<ref name="Ueber#" />}} to be inferior to that of France, believing that it had been hindered by the devastation of the [[Thirty Years' War]].{{sfnm|Gooch|1947|1p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatru0000gooc_n4j0/page/151 151]|MacDonogh|2000|2pp=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatli00macd/page/369 369–370]}} He suggested that it could eventually equal its rivals, but this would require a complete codification of the German language, the emergence of talented German authors and extensive patronage of the arts by Germanic rulers, which he believed would take a century or more.{{sfnm|Gooch|1947|1p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatru0000gooc_n4j0/page/152 152]}} Frederick's love of French culture was not without limits: he disapproved of the luxury and extravagance of the French royal court, and ridiculed German princes, especially Augustus III, who imitated French sumptuousness.{{sfn|Frederick II|1750a}} His own court remained quite Spartan, frugal and small and restricted to a limited circle of close friends,{{sfn|MacDonogh|2000|pp=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatli00macd/page/134 134–135]}} similar to his father's court, though Frederick and his friends were far more culturally inclined.{{sfn|Clark|2006|p=[https://archive.org/details/ironkingdomrised00chri/page/188 188]}}

Despite his distaste for the German language, Frederick sponsored the {{lang|de|Königliche Deutsche Gesellschaft}} (Royal German Society), founded in 1741, the aim of which was to promote and develop the German language. He allowed the association to be titled "royal" and have its seat at the [[Königsberg Castle]], but he does not seem to have taken much interest in its work. Frederick also promoted the use of German instead of Latin in law, as in the legal document {{lang|la|Project des Corporis Juris Fridericiani}} (''Project of the Frederician Body of Laws''), which was written in German with the aim of being clear and easily understandable.{{sfn|Klippel|1999|p=[http://publications.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/pubs/proc/files/100p043.pdf 48]}} It was under his reign that Berlin became an important centre of German enlightenment.{{sfn|Dilthey|1927|pp=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatpr00pare/page/177 177–197]}}

==== Architecture and the fine arts ====
[[File:Potsdam - Schloss Sanssouci.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35 |alt=Photograph of the rear of a palace|South, or garden façade and ''[[corps de logis]]'' of [[Sanssouci]]]]
Frederick had many famous buildings constructed in his capital, Berlin, most of which still stand today, such as the Berlin State Opera, the Royal Library (today the [[Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin|State Library Berlin]]), St. Hedwig's Cathedral, and Prince Henry's Palace (now the site of [[Humboldt University of Berlin|Humboldt University]]).{{sfn|Ladd|2018|p=[{{Google book|id=WZVQDwAAQBAJ|pg=53|plainurl=yes}} 53]}} A number of the buildings, including the Berlin State Opera House, a wing of [[Schloss Charlottenburg]],{{sfn|Hamilton|1880|pp=[https://archive.org/details/rheinsbergmemor06hamigoog/page/n148 129–134]}} and the renovation of Rheinsburg during Frederick's residence were built in a unique [[Rococo]] style that Frederick developed in collaboration with [[Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff]].{{sfn|Schieder|1983|p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreat0000schi/page/6 6]}} This style became known as [[Frederician Rococo]] and is epitomised by Frederick's summer palace, Sanssouci (French for "carefree" or "without worry"),{{sfn|Kaufmann|1995|p=[{{Google book|id=zzcDERro12gC|pg=400|plainurl=yes}} 400]}} his primary residence and private refuge.{{sfnm|Asprey|1986|1p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatma00aspr/page/n417 388]|Gooch|1947|2p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatru0000gooc_n4j0/page/127 127]|Mitford|1970|3p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreat00mitf_0/page/159 159]}}

As a great patron of the arts, Frederick was a collector of paintings and ancient sculptures; his favourite artist was [[Jean-Antoine Watteau]]. His sense of aesthetics can be seen in the picture gallery at Sanssouci, which presents architecture, painting, sculpture and the decorative arts as a unified whole. The gilded stucco decorations of the ceilings were created by Johann Michael Merck and Carl Joseph Sartori. 17th-century Flemish and Dutch paintings filled the western wing and the gallery's central building, while Italian paintings from the High Renaissance and Baroque were exhibited in the eastern wing. Sculptures were arranged symmetrically or in rows in relation to the architecture.{{sfn|ArtDaily|2013}}

==== Science and the Berlin Academy ====
[[File:Adolph-von-Menzel-Tafelrunde2 (cropped).jpg|thumb|alt=Painting of Frederick and companions seated around a table|''The Round Table of King Frederick II in Sanssouci'' by [[Adolph Menzel]] (1849,[[Alte Nationalgalerie]], Berlin). Frederick is seated at the center with [[Voltaire]] (leaning forward in a purple coat), [[Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis d'Argens|Marquis d'Argens]], [[George Keith, 10th Earl Marischal|George Keith]],{{efn|George Keith and his brother [[James Francis Edward Keith]] were Scottish soldiers in exile who joined Frederick's entourage after 1745.{{sfn|MacDonogh|2000|p=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatli00macd/page/193 193]}} They are unrelated to the Keith brothers, Peter and Robert, who were Frederick's companions when he was Crown Prince.{{sfn|Mitford|1970|pp=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreat00mitf_0/page/30 30], [https://archive.org/details/frederickgreat00mitf_0/page/166 166–167]}}}}  [[Francesco Algarotti|Algarotti]], [[Julien Offray de La Mettrie|La Mettrie]], and [[Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis d'Argens|Marquis d'Argens.]]{{sfn|Carruth|1899|pp=[https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1089&context=ocj 581–582]}} ]]

When Frederick ascended the throne in 1740, he reinstituted the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]] (Berlin Academy), which his father had closed down as an economy measure. Frederick's goal was to make Berlin a European cultural centre that rivalled London and Paris.{{sfn|Smeall|2010|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20210429043403/https://central.bac-lac.gc.ca/.item?id=NR77555&op=pdf&app=Library&oclc_number=1019473467 227]}} He invited intellectuals from across Europe to join the academy, made French the official language and made speculative philosophy the most important topic of study.{{sfn|Aarsleff|1989|pp=193–206}} The membership was strong in mathematics and philosophy and included [[Immanuel Kant]], D'Alembert, [[Pierre Louis de Maupertuis]], and [[Étienne de Condillac]]. However the academy was in a crisis for two decades at mid-century,{{sfn|Dilthey|1927|pp=[https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatpr00pare/page/177 177–197]}} due in part to scandals and internal rivalries such as the debates between Newtonianism and Leibnizian views, and the personality conflict between Voltaire and Maupertuis. At a higher level Maupertuis, director of the Berlin Academy from 1746 to 1759 and a monarchist, argued that the action of individuals was shaped by the character of the institution that contained them, and they worked for the glory of the state. By contrast, d'Alembert took a republican approach and emphasised the international [[Republic of Letters]] as the vehicle for scientific advance.{{sfn|Terrall|1990|pp=333–364}} By 1789, the academy had gained international repute while making major contributions to German culture and thought. For example, the mathematicians he recruited for the Berlin Academy – including [[Leonhard Euler]], [[Joseph-Louis Lagrange]], [[Johann Heinrich Lambert]], and [[Giovanni Salvemini|Johann Castillon]] – made it a world-class centre for mathematical research.{{sfn|Cajori|1927|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2298702 112]}} Other intellectuals attracted to the philosopher's kingdom were [[Francesco Algarotti]], d'Argens, and [[Julien Offray de La Mettrie]].{{sfn|Aarsleff|1989|pp=193–206}}