Editing Ethnography (section)

==Ethics==
[[Gary Alan Fine]] argues that the nature of ethnographic inquiry demands that researchers deviate from formal and idealistic rules or ethics that have come to be widely accepted in qualitative and quantitative approaches in research. Many of these ethical assumptions are rooted in positivist and post-positivist [[epistemology|epistemologies]] that have adapted over time but are apparent and must be accounted for in all research paradigms. These ethical dilemmas are evident throughout the entire process of conducting ethnographies, including the design, implementation, and reporting of an ethnographic study. Essentially, Fine maintains that researchers are typically not as ethical as they claim or assume to be — and that "each job includes ways of doing things that would be inappropriate for others to know".<ref>Fine, p. 267</ref> Also see Jaber F. Gubrium concept of "site-specificity" discussed his book co-edited with Amir Marvasti titled CRAFTING ETHNOGRAPHIC FIELDWORK. Routledge, 2023.

Fine is not necessarily casting blame at ethnographic researchers but tries to show that researchers often make idealized ethical claims and standards which are inherently based on partial truths and self-deceptions. Fine also acknowledges that many of these partial truths and self-deceptions are unavoidable. He maintains that "illusions" are essential to maintain an occupational reputation and avoid potentially more caustic consequences. He claims, "Ethnographers cannot help but lie, but in lying, we reveal truths that escape those who are not so bold".<ref>Fine, p. 291</ref> Based on these assertions, Fine establishes three conceptual clusters in which ethnographic ethical dilemmas can be situated: "Classic Virtues", "Technical Skills", and "Ethnographic Self".

Much debate surrounding the issue of ethics arose following revelations about how the ethnographer [[Napoleon Chagnon]] conducted his ethnographic fieldwork with the [[Yanomani]] people of South America.

While there is no international standard on Ethnographic Ethics, many western anthropologists look to the American Anthropological Association for guidance when conducting ethnographic work.<ref name = "Ethics p.1">[http://www.aaanet.org/issues/policy-advocacy/upload/AAA-Ethics-Code-2009.pdf ''American Anthropology Association Code of Ethics''] (PDF). p. 1.</ref> In 2009, the Association adopted a code of ethics, stating: Anthropologists have "moral obligations as members of other groups, such as the family, religion, and community, as well as the profession".<ref name="Ethics p.1"/> The code of ethics notes that anthropologists are part of a wider scholarly and political network, as well as human and natural environment, which needs to be reported on respectfully.<ref name="Ethics p.1"/> The code of ethics recognizes that sometimes very close and personal relationship can sometimes develop from doing ethnographic work.<ref name="Ethics p.1"/> The Association acknowledges that the code is limited in scope; ethnographic work can sometimes be multidisciplinary, and anthropologists need to be familiar with ethics and perspectives of other disciplines as well.<ref>American Anthropology Association Code of Ethics, p.2</ref> The eight-page code of ethics outlines ethical considerations for those conducting Research, Teaching, Application and Dissemination of Results, which are briefly outlined below.<ref>American Anthropology Association Code of Ethics, p. 1–8.</ref>
* "Conducting Research" – When conducting research Anthropologists need to be aware of the potential impacts of the research on the people and animals they study.<ref name="Ethics p.2-3">American Anthropology Association Code of Ethics, p.2–3</ref> If the seeking of new knowledge will negatively impact the people and animals they will be studying they may not undertake the study according to the code of ethics.<ref name="Ethics p.2-3"/>
* "Teaching" – When teaching the discipline of anthropology, instructors are required to inform students of the ethical dilemmas of conducting ethnographies and field work.<ref>American Anthropology Association Code of Ethics, p. 4.</ref>
* "Application" – When conducting an ethnography, Anthropologists must be "open with funders, colleagues, persons studied or providing information, and relevant parties affected by the work about the purpose(s), potential impacts, and source(s) of support for the work."<ref name="Ethics p.5">American Anthropology Association Code of Ethics, p. 5.</ref>
* "Dissemination of Results" – When disseminating results of an ethnography, "[a]nthropologists have an ethical obligation to consider the potential impact of both their research and the communication or dissemination of the results of their research on all directly or indirectly involved."<ref>American Anthropology Association Code of Ethics, p. 5–6.</ref> Research results of ethnographies should not be withheld from participants in the research if that research is being observed by other people.<ref name="Ethics p.5"/>

===Classic virtues===
* "The kindly ethnographer" – Most ethnographers present themselves as being more sympathetic than they are, which aids in the research process, but is also deceptive. The identity that we present to subjects is different from whom we are in other circumstances.
* "The friendly ethnographer" – Ethnographers operate under the assumption that they should not dislike anyone. When ethnographers find they intensely dislike individuals encountered in the research, they may crop them out of the findings.<ref name="Fine">Fine, p. 270–77</ref>
* "The honest ethnographer" – If research participants know the research goals, their responses will likely be skewed. Therefore, ethnographers often conceal what they know in order to increase the likelihood of acceptance by participants.<ref name="Fine" />

===Technical skills===
* "The Precise Ethnographer" – Ethnographers often create the illusion that field notes are data and reflect what "really" happened. They engage in the opposite of plagiarism, giving undeserved credit through loose interpretations and paraphrasing. Researchers take near-fictions and turn them into claims of fact. The closest ethnographers can ever really get to reality is an approximate truth.{{cn|date=January 2024}}
* "The Observant Ethnographer" – Readers of ethnography are often led to assume the report of a scene is complete – that little of importance was missed. In reality, an ethnographer will always miss some aspect because of lacking omniscience. Everything is open to multiple interpretations and misunderstandings. As ethnographers' skills in observation and collection of data vary by individual, what is depicted in ethnography can never be the whole picture.
* "The Unobtrusive Ethnographer" – As a "participant" in the scene, the researcher will always have an effect on the communication that occurs within the research site. The degree to which one is an "active member" affects the extent to which sympathetic understanding is possible.<ref>Fine, p. 277–81</ref>

===Ethnographic self===
The following are commonly misconceived conceptions of ethnographers:<ref name="Fine, p. 282-89">Fine, p. 282–89</ref>
* "The Candid Ethnographer" – Where the researcher personally situates within the ethnography is ethically problematic. There is an illusion that everything reported was observed by the researcher.
* "The Chaste Ethnographer" – When ethnographers participate within the field, they invariably develop relationships with research subjects/participants. These relationships are sometimes not accounted for within the reporting of the ethnography, although they may influence the research findings.
* "The Fair Ethnographer" – Fine claims that objectivity is an illusion and that everything in ethnography is known from a perspective. Therefore, it is unethical for a researcher to report fairness in findings.
* "The Literary Ethnographer" – Representation is a balancing act of determining what to "show" through poetic/prosaic language and style, versus what to "tell" via straightforward, 'factual' reporting. The individual skills of an ethnographer influence what appears to be the value of the research.

According to Norman K. Denzin, ethnographers should consider the following seven principles when observing, recording, and sampling data:{{cn|date=November 2022}}
# The groups should combine symbolic meanings with patterns of interaction.
# Observe the world from the point of view of the subject, while maintaining the distinction between everyday and scientific perceptions of reality.
# Link the group's symbols and their meanings with the social relationships.
# Record all behavior.
# The methodology should highlight phases of process, change, and stability.
# The act should be a type of symbolic interactionism.
# Use concepts that would avoid casual explanations.