Editing Eric Bloodaxe (section)

==King of Northumbria==
It is when Eric gains the kingship in Northumbria that he finally steps more firmly into the historical limelight, even though the sources provide only scanty detail and present notorious problems of their own. The historical sources&nbsp;– e.g., versions A-F of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', ''Historia regum'' and Roger of Wendover's ''Historia Anglorum&nbsp;–'' tend to be reticent and the chronology is confused. However, the best chronological guideline appears to be that offered by the Worcester Chronicle, i.e., the D-text of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''.<ref name="ftn84">Clare Downham, "Chronology."</ref>

The Northumbria on which he set foot was one which had been bitterly fought over between the West-Saxon kings and the Hiberno-Norse line of descendants from [[Uí Ímair|Ímair]], kings of Dublin. The Northumbrians' own position in the middle of the struggle may have been complex and the outcome was variable, leading an unsympathetic historian like Henry of Huntingdon to judge harshly "their usual faithlessness" (''solita infidelitas'').<ref name="ftn83">Henry of Huntingdon, ''Historia'' V ch. 22.</ref>

===Historical background ===

====Æthelstan====
In 927, having ejected [[Gofraid ua Ímair]] from York, [[Æthelstan|King Æthelstan]] brought Northumbria under English control. His victory in the [[Battle of Brunanburh]] in 937, in which he and his half-brother Edmund defeated Gofraid's son [[Amlaíb mac Gofraid (died 941)|King Olaf (III) Guthfrithson of Dublin]], seems to have had the effect of consolidating his power. This impression is borne out by royal charters issued towards the end of his reign, between 937 and 939, which style Æthelstan ruler over all Britain (e.g., {{lang|la|totius rex Brittanniae}} or {{lang|la|Albionis}}).<ref name="ftn38">For instance, S 432 (AD 437): 'Rex totius Albionis'; S 437 (AD 937): 'rex Anglorum et eque totius Albionis gubernator '; S 438 (AD 937): 'basileos Anglorum et et eque totius Britannie orbis'; S 441 (AD 938): 'basileus industrius Anglorum cunctarumque gentium in circuitu persistentium'; S 444 (AD 938): 'tocius rex Brittanniæ'; S 446 (AD 939): 'basileos Anglorum et equæ totius Brittanniæ orbis curagulus'; S 449 (AD 939).</ref>

====Edmund and the two Olafs====
[[File:Midland Map - 5 Boroughs 912 Ad.svg|thumb|The Five Boroughs and the English Midlands in the earlier part of the 10th century<ref>After Malcolm Falkus and John Gillingham, ''Historical Atlas of Britain''. Kingfisher, 1989. p. 52; and David Hill, ''An Atlas of Anglo-Saxon England''. Toronto, 1981.</ref>]]

However, Æthelstan died in 939 and his successor [[Edmund I of England|Edmund]], only 18 years of age,<ref name="ftn39">''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) 940 for 939.</ref> was unable to retain control of Northumbria. In 939 or 940, almost as soon as Edmund had come to power, a new ruler of the [[Uí Ímair]] dynasty had made York his seat. From Irish annals it is known that Edmund's old rival [[Olaf Guthfrithson]] left Dublin in 939 (''Annals of the Four Masters''), that in 940 his cousin, known in Ireland as [[Amlaíb Cuarán]] and in England as Olaf Sihtricsson, joined him in York (''Annals of the Four Masters'', ''Annals of Clonmacnoise'') and that Olaf Guthfrithson died in 941 (''Annals of Clonmacnoise'','' Chronicon Scotorum''), while the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS E) dates his death&nbsp;– incorrectly it seems&nbsp;– to 942.<ref name="ftn40">Downham, "Chronology". 33–34. ''Annals of the Four Masters'' II 638 (AD 937 for 939); ''Annals of the Four Masters'' II 640 (AD 938 for 940), ''Annals of Clonmacnoise'' pp. 151–52 (AD 933 for 940); ''Annals of Clonmacnoise'' p. 152 (AD 934 for 941), ''Chronicon Scotorum'' p. 202 (AD 940 for 941).</ref> Amlaíb Cuarán succeeded him and did so with popular support, as the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) reports that in 941, "the Northumbrians belied their pledges, and chose Olaf [i.e., Amlaíb Cuarán] from Ireland as their king."<ref name="ftn41">''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) 941.</ref> Amlaíb shared the throne with his nephew [[Ragnall mac Gofraid|Ragnald]] (Rögnvaldr), son of Gofraid. There are indications that [[Wulfstan I|Wulfstan, Archbishop of York]] and a leading statesman in Northumbrian politics, played a key role in Amlaíb's support, although he would later change his mind (see below). In 942 Edmund struck back with a recapture of Mercia and the [[Five Boroughs of the Danelaw|Five Boroughs]] of [[Danelaw]], which so impressed contemporaries that a poem was written in honour of the achievement and included in the ''Chronicle''.<ref name="ftn42">''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) 942. The borders of Mercia are here given as [[Dore, South Yorkshire|Dore]], [[Whitwell Gate]] and the [[Humber]].</ref> In response, Amlaíb launched a successful raid on [[Tamworth, Staffordshire|Tamworth]] (Mercia), probably sometime later that year.<ref name="ftn43">''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) 943. The entry for this year consists of three items: (1) the raid on Tamworth, probably in (late) 942, (2) the Leicester debacle (beginning with ''Her'', as if intended for 943) and (3) the reconciliation between Olaf and Edmund. The first two items, clumsily incorporated as they seem, are unique to the ''Chronicles'' and appear to derive from a northern source. These broadly overlap with information found in the ''Historia regum'', a later representative of this northern recension. The ''Historia regum'', which is often unreliable on matters of chronology but which contains valuable detail not found elsewhere, adds that Olaf first went south to the Mercian town of [[Northampton]] (''Hamtona'') before he proceeded to Tamworth. Downham, "Chronology". pp. 34–41 (where she takes issue with earlier views since Beaven, who rejected the chronology of the D-text of the ''Chronicle'' in favour of less reliable sources such as ''Historia regum'').</ref> However, in 943, when Amlaíb had marched on to [[Leicester]], one of the Boroughs, he and Wulfstan were besieged by Edmund and managed to escape only by a hair's breadth. Peace negotiations followed later that year to the effect that Edmund accepted Amlaíb as an ally and as two northern sources add, ceded to him Northumbria as far south as Watling Street. Later, Edmund stood sponsor to him at baptism and to Ragnall at confirmation. In 944, however, Northumbria passed into West-Saxon hands again as Edmund drove out both Viking rulers.<ref name="ftn44">''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MSS A, E) 945.</ref> The chronicler [[Æthelweard (historian)|Æthelweard]] is clearer on the point of agency, writing that it was Wulfstan and the ealdorman ({{lang|la|dux}}) of the Mercians who deposed these 'deserters'&nbsp;– perhaps born again pagans&nbsp;– and forced them to submit to Edmund.<ref name="ftn45">Æthelweard, ''Chronicon'' IV, ch. 6''. ''</ref> The same year, Edmund raided Cumbria and entrusted it to [[Malcolm I of Scotland]] in exchange for support "both on sea and on land". The Irish annals report that in 945, Amlaíb was back in Dublin and an anonymous ruler at York, possibly Ragnald (Rögnvaldr), died. Edmund was described as {{lang|la|rex totiusque Albionis primicerius}} in one of his charters, but did not live long enough to enjoy his renewed hold on the northern zone. He was killed in 946.

===Eric's first reign (947/8–948)===
When [[Eadred]] succeeded to the throne in 946, Northumbrian as well as Scottish loyalties had proved unstable, though nothing is known for certain of the ambitions of rival rulers at this stage. Eadred "reduced all the land of Northumbria to his control; and the Scots granted him oaths that they would do all that he wanted."<ref name="ftn46">''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MSS D, E) 946. Cf: William of Malmesbury, ''Gesta regum'' II ch. 146: "The Northumbrians and Scots were easily brought to swear an oath of fealty to him [Eadred]".</ref> Moreover, in 947 he convened Archbishop Wulfstan and the Northumbrian witan at [[Tanshelf]] (now in [[Pontefract]], West Yorkshire), on the boundary of the Humber (near an old Roman road), where they pledged their obedience to him. What perceived threat was being countered remains unclear, but English rule does not seem to have been very warmly received.

In any event, the ''Chronicle'' (MS D) notes that the Northumbrians soon violated their pledges and oaths (947)<ref name="ftn47">''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) 947.</ref> and records a definite outcome of their disloyalty in 948, by which time "they had taken Eirik [''Yryc''] for their king".<ref name="ftn48">''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) 948. Cf: William of Malmesbury, ''Gesta regum'' II ch. 146: "...&nbsp;and soon afterwards, when they broke the agreement and set up a certain King Eric [{{lang|la|quodam Iritio rege}}] over them, he [Eadred] almost wiped them out, and laid waste the whole province with famine and bloodshed."</ref> That year, King Eadred harshly punished the northern defectors by launching a destructive raid on Northumbria, which notably included burning the [[Ripon]] [[Ripon Cathedral|minster]] founded by [[St Wilfrid]]. Although Eadred's forces had to sustain heavy losses in the Battle of [[Castleford]] (''Ceaster forda'')&nbsp;– near Tanshelf&nbsp;– as they returned southwards, Eadred managed to check his rival by promising the latter's supporters even greater havoc if they did not desert Eric. The Northumbrians preferred to appease the English king, renounced Eric and paid compensation.<ref name="ftn49">''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) 948. ''Historia regum'' AD 950, ed. Arnold, vol. 2, p. 127: 'Verum hoc cognito, Northymbrenses timore perterriti, Yrcum quem sibi regem praefecerant abjecerunt, regis injurias honoribus, detrimenta muneribus expleverunt, ejusque offensam pecunia non modica placaverunt'.</ref>

The [[Chronicle of the Kings of Alba]] records that shortly thereafter, in 948 or 949, [[Malcolm I of Scotland|Malcolm (I) of Scotland]] and Cumbria, at [[Constantine II of Scotland|Constantine]]'s instigation, raided Northumbria as far south as the [[River Tees]] and returned with many cattle and captives.<ref name="ftn92">''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba'', ed. Skene, p. 10.</ref> Marios Costambeys suggests that it "may have been directed against, or mounted in favour of, Eirik, though the protagonist could just as easily have been Óláf Sihtricson."<ref name="ftn95">Costambeys, "Erik Bloodaxe (''d''. 954)".</ref>

===Eric's second reign (952–954)===
Eric's removal cleared the way for Amlaíb [Anlaf Cwiran], who having suffered defeat at [[Slane]] (Co. Meath, Ireland) in 947, returned to Northumbria and took the kingship, supposedly in 949, if the E-text is to be trusted.<ref name="ftn50">''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ''(MS E) 949. The E-text of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' describes Edmund's death two years too late and accordingly, some doubts may be cast over the dating of Amlaíb's arrival in 949 and his expulsion in favour of Eric in 952. However, a solid {{lang|la|terminus post quem}} for Amlaíb's second reign at York is provided by the entry for 948 in the D-text and by the Irish entries for Amlaíb's defeat in Slane in 947.</ref> Eadred does not appear to have undertaken any significant action and may even have turned a blind eye on his brother's godson, or so at least the silence of the sources appears to suggest.

The E-text reports, however, that in 952, "the Northumbrians drove out King Olaf and accepted Eric, son of Harold."<ref name="ftn51">''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS E) 952. Henry of Huntingdon, ''Historia Anglorum'', assigns it to the fourth year of Eadred's reign.</ref> The Annals of Ulster for the same year report a victory of the "foreigners", i.e., the Northmen or the Norse-Gaels, over "the men of Scotland and the Welsh [''Bretnu'', i.e., Britons of Strathclyde] and the Saxons."<ref name="ftn93">''Annals of Ulster''</ref> Exactly what this succinct account may tell us of his second rise to power, if anything, is frustratingly unclear. He may have led the Viking forces in a second bid for the throne, or only returned from the sideline to exploit the ravages of defeat.<ref name="ftn95"/> His reign proved once again of a short duration, since in 954 (a date on which MSS D and E agree), the Northumbrians expelled him, too.<ref name="ftn52">''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MSS D, E) 954. Henry of Huntingdon, ''Historia Anglorum'': "King Eadred, in the seventh year of his reign, was once more received in the kingdom of Northumbria."</ref>

Clare Downham notes the existence of an otherwise unrecorded ''Eltangerht'', whose coins were minted at York and date from about the same time, but nothing is known of him from other records.<ref name="ftn89">Clare Downham, "Chronology". p. 48.</ref>

===Archbishop Wulfstan and the charters===
The nature of Eric's relationship with [[Wulfstan I|Archbishop Wulfstan]], the leading Northumbrian churchman who played such a decisive role in Amlaíb's career in the early 940s, remains tantalisingly unclear. One might assume that Wulfstan, given his political eminence, headed the Northumbrian party which elected Eric. It has likewise been suggested that Eadred's punitive attack on the ancient minster of Ripon, which carried little military weight, was targeted at Wulfstan in particular.<ref>Ann Williams, "Eadred".</ref> In what sense his deposition in 948 may have affected the relationship in later years is more open to speculation.

The witness lists of [[Anglo-Saxon charters]], which reveal when or not Wulfstan attended Eadred's court, in his own right or as a diplomat intermediating between two kings, have been used to provide a chronological framework for Wulfstan's swerving loyalties. Between 938 and 941, that is roughly between the Battle of Brunanburh (937) and the recovery of the Five Boroughs (942), the archbishop did not attest any royal charters, but he began to do so during or after the negotiations of 942.<ref name="ftn53">The following is based on 'Wulfstan 14, fl. 931–956', ''Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England''. Accessed: 6 February 2009.</ref> What the charters reveal for Eric's first reign is less clear-cut, but intermittent absence may explain gaps in the record for Wulfstan's attestations in the turbulent years 947–948.<ref name="ftn54">AD 946 (Eadred's reign): S 519–20. In 947, Wulfstan attests six or seven charters (S 522a, 523, 525–26, 528, 542 and the spurious S 521), but he is absent from another four (S 522, 524, 527, 530); in AD 948, it is eight charters (S 531–32, 535, 542, 547 and the spurious S 536–37, 540) against three (S 533–34 and the spurious 538). One may compare Wulfstan's attendance (S 544, 546, 548–550, 552) and non-attendance (S 545, 547, 551) in AD 949.</ref> Unfortunately, the critical period between 950 and 954 has produced comparatively few charters (owing perhaps to Eadred's deteriorating health), but what little there is may be instructive. Wulfstan is still seen at court in 950, but of the five charters which were issued in 951, not one was attested by him,<ref name="ftn55">S 554–548 (AD 951).</ref> which once again may imply his backing of Amlaíb. Eric's reign (952–954) is more obscure. We do know, however, that in 952, the same year that Eric began his second term at York, Wulfstan was arrested and stood on trial in ''Iudanbyrig'' (unknown)<ref name="ftn56">On the authority of Simeon of Durham, [[Michael Swanton]] (in his translation, n. 10) identifies ''Iudanbyrig'' with Jedburgh, "a manor of the bishops of Lindisfarne", now in Roxburghshire, in the south-east of Scotland. Cf: Downham, "Chronology". p. 47 n. 162; Andrew Breeze, "Some Scottish names, including 'Vacomagi, Boresti, Iudanbyrig, Aberlessic' and 'Dubuice'." ''Scottish language'' 26 (2007): pp. 79–95.</ref> on account of several unspecified allegations which had been repeatedly brought before Eadred.<ref name="ftn57">''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) 952.</ref> Of the few charters surviving for 953, Wulfstan attests one<ref name="ftn58">S 560 (AD 953).</ref> and by 955, after Eric's death, he was restored to office, but now with [[Dorchester, Dorset|Dorchester]] rather than York as his episcopal seat.<ref name="ftn59">''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) 954.</ref> Clare Downham suggests that during this period, Wulfstan may have been pressured by King Eadred into relinquishing his support of Eric.<ref name="ftn89"/>

===Coinage===
[[File:Eric-Rex-coins.jpg|thumb|Coin minted at York, type N550, ECM 2007.0059.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/dept/coins/emc/fullpage.php?from=list&which=18 |title=Early Medieval Coin |publisher=Fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk |access-date=17 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303222447/http://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/dept/coins/emc/fullpage.php?from=list&which=18 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> Obverse: ERIC RE[X] (King Eric). Reverse: [R]ADVLF MON[] (moneyer Radulf).]]

Eric's Northumbrian rule is also corroborated by numismatic evidence. As of 3 February 2009, 31 coins minted at York had been found which bear the inscription of his name. These can be divided into two distinct types of issue: N549, in which the moneyer's name (reverse) is written horizontally and broken up in two, and N550, in which his name is inscribed around the edges and Eric's name (obverse) accompanied by a sword symbol (image above on the right). The two principal moneyers, Ingalger and Radulf, who had also minted coins for Amlaíb, occur on both types. The two types may correspond to his two reigns, but it is not out of the question that both were issued during a single reign.<ref name="ftn91">Costambeys, "Erik Bloodaxe (''d.'' 954)".</ref>

===''Life'' of St Cathróe===
Eric's sudden appearance in the ''Chronicle'', first noted by the D-text, is a puzzling one, lacking any information as to how or why he emerged on the scene. As hinted above, the ''Life'' of the Scottish saint [[Cathróe of Metz]], written by a cleric (Reimann) who claimed to have been a former pupil of the saint, may possibly shed some light on his background. St Cathróe, a Scottish saint with a [[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]] name, visited a certain King Eric (''Erichus'') in York as he proceeded southwards from his native [[Kingdom of Strathclyde|Strathclyde]] and Cumbria to ''Loida civitas'', sometimes identified as [[Leeds]], on the boundary with Cumbria, ultimately intending to go to West France.<ref name="ftn60">He was escorted by a certain nobleman called Gunderic "a quo perducitur ad regem Erichium in Euroacum urbem, qui scilicet rex habebat conjugem, ipsius Divini Cathroë propinquam". A. O. Anderson (ed.), ''Early Sources'', p. 441.</ref> This Eric was both settled and married, and may have been on good terms with his neighbours in the north-west, although the evidence is indirect and somewhat ambiguous: the saint claimed kinship not only with Eric's wife but also with [[Dyfnwal III of Strathclyde|Dyfnwal]] (III) (d. 975), king of Strathclyde and Cumbria (''Donevaldus, rex Cumbrorum''), which may point to an alliance of some kind between the two rulers. Based on internal evidence for the saint's itinerary, Cathróe's stay is to be dated between 940 x 943, when [[Constantine II of Scotland|Constantine (II)]] left the kingdom of Scotland to [[Malcolm I of Scotland|Malcolm (I)]], and 946, when Edmund was slain.<ref name="ftn61">Downham, "Chronology". p. 26–7.</ref> The greatest obstacle to an identification of the Erics lies in the problem that the account would be difficult to square with the version of events presented by the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' and the assertion in royal charters that in 946, Edmund was still king of all Britain.<ref name="ftn62">E.g. ''rex et primicerius totius Albionis'', S 509 (AD 946).</ref> It may be noted that the text's chronology has likewise presented some difficulties concerning the political status of Dyfnwal in the story (see [[Dyfnwal III of Strathclyde|main article there]]).

===King of the Hebrides (''Caithréim Chellacháin Chaisil'')===
A further glimpse may be offered by the mid-12th-century Irish saga entitled ''[[Caithréim Chellacháin Chaisil]]'', a text which was primarily designed to glorify the deeds of [[Cellachán mac Buadacháin]] (d. 954), king of Munster, and hence his descendants, the [[Eóganacht Chaisil|Clann Faílbe]]. In one of its poems, an "Eric, King of the Islands" (''Éiric Righ na n-Innse''), meaning ruler of the Hebrides,<ref name="ftn63">''Dictionary of the Irish Language'' cols. 269–70, 'inis' ([www.edil.ie]).''.''</ref> is described as having allied himself to Sitriuc mac Tuirgeis, king of Dublin.<ref name="ftn64">''Caithréim Chellacháin Chaisil'' § 44, pp. 25, 83.</ref> Although the ''Caithréim'' is hardly a work celebrated for its accuracy as a source of history, the distant memory of an Eric who ruled the [[Hebrides]] may not be fictitious. It may be a matter of coincidence that the next Vikings known to have ruled the Hebrides were also 'sons of Harold', [[Gofraid mac Arailt]], ''ri Innsi Gall'' (d. 989), who was succeeded by his son Ragnall, ''rí na n-innsi'' (d. 1005),<ref name="ftn65">''Annals of Ulster ''AD 989, 1005.</ref> and probably Gofraid's brother [[Maccus mac Arailt]], who is accorded the title "king of very many islands" ({{lang|la|plurimarum rex insularum}}).<ref name="ftn76">John of Worcester, ''Chronicle'' AD 973 and ''Historia regum'' AD 973, ed. Arnold, p. 130.</ref>