Editing Edward II of England (section)

==Mid-reign (1311–1321)==
===Death of Gaveston===
Tensions between Edward and the barons remained high, and the earls opposed to the king kept their personal armies mobilised late into 1311.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=182}}.</ref> By now Edward had become estranged from his cousin, the Earl of Lancaster, who was also the [[Earl of Leicester]], Lincoln, [[Earl of Salisbury|Salisbury]] and [[Earl of Derby|Derby]], with an income of around £11,000 a year from his lands, almost double that of the next wealthiest baron.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=152, 174–175}}.</ref> Backed by the earls of [[Edmund Fitzalan, 2nd Earl of Arundel|Arundel]], [[Gilbert de Clare, 8th Earl of Gloucester|Gloucester]], [[Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford|Hereford]], [[Aymer de Valence, 2nd Earl of Pembroke|Pembroke]] and [[Guy de Beauchamp, 10th Earl of Warwick|Warwick]], Lancaster led a powerful faction in England, but he was not personally interested in practical administration, nor was he a particularly imaginative or effective politician.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=182, 276}}; {{Harvnb|Prestwich|2003|p=77}}; {{Harvnb|Haines|2003|pp=82–83, 87, 95}}.</ref>

Edward responded to the baronial threat by revoking the Ordinances and recalling Gaveston to England, being reunited with him at York in January 1312.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=182–184}}.</ref> The barons were furious and met in London, where Gaveston was excommunicated by the Archbishop of Canterbury and plans were put in place to capture Gaveston and prevent him from fleeing to Scotland.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=184–185}}; {{Harvnb|Chaplais|1994|p=82}}.</ref> Edward, Isabella and Gaveston left for Newcastle, pursued by Lancaster and his followers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=186–187}}.</ref> Abandoning many of their belongings, the royal party fled by ship and landed at [[Scarborough, North Yorkshire|Scarborough]], where Gaveston stayed while Edward and Isabella returned to York.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=187}}.</ref> After a short siege, Gaveston surrendered to the earls of Pembroke and [[John de Warenne, 7th Earl of Surrey|Surrey]], on the promise that he would not be harmed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=187–188}}.</ref> He had with him a huge collection of gold, silver and gems, probably part of the royal treasury, which he was later accused of having stolen from Edward.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1991|pp=202–204}}.</ref>

On the way back from the north, Pembroke stopped in the village of [[Deddington]] in the Midlands, putting Gaveston under guard there while he went to visit his wife.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=189}}; {{Harvnb|Haines|2003|pp=86–87}}.</ref> The Earl of Warwick took this opportunity to seize Gaveston, taking him to [[Warwick Castle]], where the Earl of Lancaster and the rest of his faction assembled on 18 June.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=189–190}}.</ref> At a brief trial, Gaveston was declared guilty of being a traitor under the terms of the Ordinances; he was beheaded on [[Blacklow Hill]] the following day, under the authority of Lancaster.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=190–191}}; {{Harvnb|Chaplais|1994|p=88}}.</ref> Gaveston's body was not buried until 1315, when his funeral was held in [[King's Langley Priory]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=241}}.</ref>

===Tensions with Lancaster and France===
[[File:Trojka kralove.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=painting of Edward at a knighting ceremony|Edward (left) and Philip IV at the knighting ceremony in [[Notre Dame de Paris|Notre Dame]] in Paris in 1312]]

Reactions to the death of Gaveston varied considerably.<ref name="Chaplais 1994 89">{{Harvnb|Chaplais|1994|p=89}}.</ref> Edward was furious and deeply upset over what he saw as the murder of Gaveston; he made provisions for Gaveston's family, and intended to take revenge on the barons involved.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chaplais|1994|p=82}}; {{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=192}}.</ref> The earls of Pembroke and Surrey were embarrassed and angry about Warwick's actions, and shifted their support to Edward in the aftermath.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=191}}; {{Harvnb|Haines|2003|p=86}}.</ref> To Lancaster and his core of supporters, the execution had been both legal and necessary to preserve the stability of the kingdom.<ref name="Chaplais 1994 89"/> Civil war again appeared likely, but in December, the Earl of Pembroke negotiated a potential peace treaty between the two sides, which would pardon the opposition barons for the killing of Gaveston, in exchange for their support for a fresh campaign in Scotland.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=193–196, 199–200}}.</ref> Lancaster and Warwick, however, did not give the treaty their immediate approval, and further negotiations continued through most of 1313.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=206–208}}.</ref>

Meanwhile, the Earl of Pembroke had been negotiating with France to resolve the long-standing disagreements over the administration of Gascony, and as part of this Edward and Isabella agreed to travel to Paris in June 1313 to meet with Philip&nbsp;IV.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=207–920}}.</ref> Edward probably hoped both to resolve the problems in the south of France and to win Philip's support in the dispute with the barons; for Philip it was an opportunity to impress his son-in-law with his power and wealth.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=209–211}}.</ref> It proved a spectacular visit, including a grand ceremony in which the two kings knighted Philip's sons and two hundred other men in [[Notre-Dame de Paris]], large banquets along the [[River Seine]], and a public declaration that both kings and their queens would join a crusade to the [[Levant]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=210–211}}.</ref> Philip gave lenient terms for settling the problems in Gascony, and the event was spoiled only by a serious fire in Edward's quarters.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=213}}.</ref>

On his return from France, Edward found his political position greatly strengthened.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=214}}.</ref> After intense negotiation, the earls, including Lancaster and Warwick, came to a compromise in October 1313, fundamentally very similar to the draft agreement of the previous December.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=217}}.</ref> Edward's finances improved, thanks to parliament agreeing to the raising of taxes, a loan of 160,000&nbsp;[[florin]]s (£25,000) from the Pope, £33,000 borrowed from Philip, and further loans organised by Edward's new Italian banker, [[Antonio Pessagno]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=218–219}}; {{Harvnb|Prestwich|2003|p=16}}.</ref> For the first time in his reign, Edward's government was well funded.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=225–226}}.</ref>

===Battle of Bannockburn===
{{Main article|Battle of Bannockburn}}
[[File:Peers and commoners fighting - The Holkham Bible Picture Book (c.1320-1330), f.40 - BL Add MS 47682.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=sketch of the Battle of Bannockburb|Depiction of the [[Battle of Bannockburn]] in 1314 from the [[Holkham Bible]], now in the [[British Library]]]]

By 1314, Robert the Bruce had recaptured most of the [[castles in Scotland]] once held by Edward, pushing raiding parties into northern England as far as [[Carlisle]].<ref name="Phillips2011PP223">{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=223–224}}.</ref> In response, Edward planned a major military campaign with the support of Lancaster and the barons, mustering a large army between 15,000 and 20,000 strong.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=225–227}}; {{Harvnb|Haines|2003|p=94}}.</ref> Meanwhile, Robert had besieged Stirling Castle, a key fortification in Scotland; its English commander had stated that unless Edward arrived by 24 June, he would surrender.<ref name=Phillips2011PP223/> News of this reached the king in late May, and he decided to speed up his march north from [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]] to relieve the castle.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=223, 227–228}}.</ref> Robert, with between 5,500 and 6,500 troops, predominantly [[spearmen]], prepared to prevent Edward's forces from reaching Stirling.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=228–229}}.</ref>

The battle began on 23 June as the English army attempted to force its way across the high ground of the [[Bannock Burn]], which was surrounded by marshland.<ref name="Phillips2011P230">{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=230}}.</ref> Skirmishing between the two sides broke out, resulting in the death of Sir [[Henry de Bohun]], whom Robert killed in personal combat.<ref name=Phillips2011P230/> Edward continued his advance the following day, and encountered the bulk of the Scottish army as they emerged from the woods of New Park.<ref name="Phillips 2011 231–232">{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=231–232}}.</ref> Edward appears not to have expected the Scots to give battle here, and as a result had kept his forces in marching, rather than battle, order, with the [[archers]]—who would usually have been used to break up enemy spear formations—at the back of his army, rather than the front.<ref name="Phillips 2011 231–232"/> His cavalry found it hard to operate in the cramped terrain and were crushed by Robert's spearmen.<ref name="Phillips2011P232">{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=232}}.</ref> The English army was overwhelmed and its leaders were unable to regain control.<ref name=Phillips2011P232/>

Edward stayed behind to fight, but it became obvious to the Earl of Pembroke that the battle was lost and he dragged the king away from the battlefield, hotly pursued by the Scottish forces.<ref name="Phillips2011P233">{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=233}}.</ref> Edward only just escaped the heavy fighting, making a vow to found a [[Carmelite]] religious house at [[Oxford]] if he survived.<ref name=Phillips2011P233/> The historian Roy Haines describes the defeat as a "calamity of stunning proportions" for the English, whose losses in the battle were huge.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=234–236}}; {{Harvnb|Haines|2003|p=259}}.</ref> In the aftermath of the defeat, Edward retreated to [[Dunbar]], then travelled by ship to Berwick, and then back to [[York]]; in his absence, Stirling Castle quickly fell.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=233, 238}}.</ref>

===Famine and criticism===
{{Main article|Great Famine of 1315–1317}}

After the fiasco of Bannockburn, the Earls of Lancaster and Warwick saw their political influence increase, and they pressured Edward to re-implement the Ordinances of 1311.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=239, 243}}.</ref> Lancaster became the head of the [[royal council]] in 1316, promising to take forward the Ordinances through a new reform commission, but he appears to have abandoned this role soon afterwards, partially because of disagreements with the other barons, and possibly because of ill-health.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=246, 267, 276}}; {{Harvnb|Haines|2003|p=104}}.</ref> Lancaster refused to meet with Edward in parliament for the next two years, bringing effective governance to a standstill. This stymied any hopes for a fresh campaign into Scotland and raised fears of civil war.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=280, 282–283, 294}}; {{Harvnb|Tebbit|2003|p=205}}.</ref> After much negotiation, once again involving the Earl of Pembroke, Edward and Lancaster finally agreed to the [[Treaty of Leake]] in August 1318, which pardoned Lancaster and his faction and established a new royal council, temporarily averting conflict.{{Sfn|Haines|2003|p=11}}{{Sfn|Phillips|2011|pp=308, 330}}

Edward's difficulties were exacerbated by prolonged problems in [[Economics of English Agriculture in the Middle Ages#The Great Famine of 1315–1317|English agriculture]], part of a wider phenomenon in northern Europe known as the [[Great Famine of 1315–1317|Great Famine]]. It began with torrential rains in late 1314, followed by a very cold winter and heavy rains the following spring that killed many sheep and cattle. The bad weather continued, almost unabated, into 1321, resulting in a string of bad harvests.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jordan|1996|p=171}}; {{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=252–253}}.</ref> Revenues from the exports of wool plummeted and the price of food rose, despite attempts by Edward's government to control prices.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jordan|1996|p=171}}; {{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=253}}.</ref> Edward called for hoarders to release food, and tried to encourage both internal trade and the importation of grain, but with little success.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jordan|1996|pp=172–174}}.</ref> The requisitioning of provisions for the royal court during the famine years only added to tensions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ormrod|2011|pp=16–17}}.</ref>

Meanwhile, Robert the Bruce exploited his victory at Bannockburn to raid northern England, initially attacking Carlisle and Berwick, and then reaching further south into [[Lancashire]] and [[Yorkshire]], even threatening York itself.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=248, 281, 329, 343–348}}.</ref> Edward undertook an expensive but unsuccessful campaign to stem the advance in 1319, but the famine made it increasingly difficult to keep his garrisons supplied with food.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=343–348}}; {{Harvnb|Haines|2003|p=97}}.</ref> Meanwhile, a Scottish expedition led by Robert's brother [[Edward Bruce]] successfully invaded Ireland in 1315. Edward Bruce declared himself the [[High King of Ireland]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=248, 253–254}}.</ref> He was finally defeated in 1318 by Edward&nbsp;II's Irish justiciar, Edmund Butler, at the [[Battle of Faughart]], and Edward Bruce's severed head was sent back to Edward&nbsp;II.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=256–258}}.</ref> Revolts also broke out [[Banastre Rebellion|in Lancashire]] and [[Bristol]] in 1315, and in [[Glamorgan]] in Wales in 1316, but were suppressed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=247–248}}; {{Harvnb|Haines|2003|pp=98–99}}.</ref>

The famine and the Scottish policy were felt to be a punishment from God, and complaints about Edward multiplied, one contemporary poem describing the "Evil Times of Edward&nbsp;II".<ref>{{Harvnb|Rubin|2006|pp=17, 36}}; {{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=328}}.</ref> Many criticised Edward's "improper" and ignoble interest in rural pursuits.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=277}}.</ref> In 1318, a mentally ill man named [[John of Powderham]] appeared in Oxford, claiming that he was the real Edward&nbsp;II, and that Edward was a [[changeling]], swapped at birth.{{Sfn|Haines|2003|pp=43–44}} John was duly executed, but his claims resonated with those criticising Edward for his lack of regal behaviour and steady leadership.{{Sfn|Haines|2003|pp=43–44}}{{Sfn|Childs|1991|pp=160–162}} Opposition also grew around Edward's treatment of his royal favourites.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tebbit|2003|p=201}}.</ref>

Edward had managed to retain some of his previous advisers, despite attempts by the Ordainers to remove them, and divided the extensive [[Gilbert de Clare, 8th Earl of Gloucester#Dispersal of estates and aftermath|de&nbsp;Clare inheritance]] among two of his new favourites, the former household knights Hugh Audley and [[Roger Damory]], instantly making them extremely rich.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tebbit|2003|p=205}}; {{Harvnb|Haines|2003|pp=104–105}}.</ref>{{Efn|The de Clare inheritance had belonged to [[Gilbert de Clare, 8th Earl of Gloucester|Gilbert de Clare]], the late Earl of Gloucester, who died fighting at Bannockburn. The estates were divided up among his three sisters, one of whom was already married to Hugh Despenser the Younger.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tebbit|2003|p=205}}; {{Harvnb|Haines|2003|p=259}}.</ref>}} Many of the moderates who had helped deliver the peaceful compromise in 1318 now began to turn against Edward, making violence ever more likely.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=336}}.</ref>