Editing Das Rheingold (section)

==Performances==

===Premiere, Munich, 22 September 1869===
Long before ''Das Rheingold'' was ready for performance, Wagner conducted excerpts of the music from scenes 1, 2 and 4, at a concert in Vienna on 26 December 1862.{{sfn|Millington et al 2002}} The work remained unstaged, but by 1869 Wagner's principal financial sponsor, [[Ludwig II of Bavaria|King Ludwig of Bavaria]], was pressing for an early performance in [[Munich]]. Wagner wanted to wait until the cycle was completed, when he would stage the work himself; also, his return to Munich would likely have precipitated a scandal, in view of his, at the time, affair with the married [[Cosima Wagner|Cosima von Bülow]].{{sfn|Gutman|1971|p=428}}{{refn|Wagner and Cosima were not married until 25 August 1870, although they were cohabiting in Switzerland.{{sfn|Holman|2001|p=35}} |group= n}} Wagner was horrified at the idea of his work being presented in accordance with Ludwig's eccentric tastes.{{sfn|Spotts|1994|p=39}} However, Ludwig, who possessed the copyright, was insistent that ''Rheingold'' be produced at the [[Bavarian State Opera|Munich Hofoper]] without further delay.{{sfn|Hilmes|2011|p=114}} Wagner did all he could to sabotage this production, fixed for August 1869, and persuaded the appointed conductor, [[Hans Richter (conductor)|Hans Richter]] to stand down after a troublesome dress rehearsal. Ludwig was unmoved; he denounced Wagner, sacked Richter, appointed another conductor, [[Franz Wüllner]], and rescheduled the premiere for 22 September. Wagner was refused admission to the rehearsals at the theatre, and returned, angry and defeated, to his home in [[Tribschen]].{{sfn|Gutman|1971|pp=428–431}}

Accounts differ as to the success or otherwise of the Munich premiere. Osborne maintains that the performance was successful,{{sfn|Osborne|1992|pp=183, 188}} as does Holman,{{sfn|Holman|2001|p=38}}{{refn|Holman wrongly dates the ''Rheingold'' Munich premiere to June 1870.{{sfn|Holman|2001|p=38}} |group= n}} while Oliver Hilmes in his biography of Cosima describes it as "an artistic disaster".{{sfn|Hilmes|2011|p=114}} Cosima's diary entries for 24 and 27 September note that the performance was portrayed in the Munich press as a [[wikt:succès d'estime|''succès d'estime'']], or otherwise as "a lavishly decorated, boring work".{{sfn|Skelton|1994|p=40}} Gutman maintains that much of the adverse comment on the Munich premiere derives from later Bayreuth propaganda, and concludes that, "in many ways, these Munich performances surpassed the level of the first Bayreuth festival".{{sfn|Gutman|1971|pp=428–431}} As to the public's reaction, the audience's main interest was in the novel scenery and stage effects; Wagner's new approach to composition largely passed them by.{{sfn|Heldt|2006|p=156}}

===Bayreuth premiere, 13 August 1876===
[[File:1876Rhinemaidens.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The Rhinemaidens, in the first Bayreuth production of ''Das Rheingold'', 1876. l to r: [[Minna Lammert]] (Floßhilde); [[Lilli Lehmann]] (Woglinde); [[Marie Lehmann (soprano)|Marie Lehmann]] (Wellgunde)]]
In 1876, with the [[Bayreuth Festspielhaus]] built, Wagner was ready to stage the first [[Bayreuth Festival]] with his own production of the now complete ''Ring'' cycle, beginning with a performance of ''Das Rheingold'' on 13 August. This event was preceded by months of preparation in which Wagner was deeply engaged; according to witnesses, he was "director, producer, coach, conductor, singer, actor, stage manager, stage hand and prompter".{{sfn|Sabor|1989|p=335}} He searched Europe for the finest orchestral players,{{sfn|Spotts|1994|p=61}} and selected a largely new cast of singers{{refn|[[Franz Betz]], who sang Wotan, and [[Max Schlosser (tenor)|Max Schlosser]] (Mime) had appeared in the premiere of ''[[Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg]]'' in 1868.{{sfn|Osborne|1992|p=153}} |group= n}} – of the Munich cast, only [[Heinrich Vogl]] (Loge) was engaged,{{sfn|Osborne|1992|p=180}} although Richter, deposed as conductor in Munich, was given the baton in Bayreuth.{{sfn|Spotts|1994|p=61}}

The 13 August premiere was an event of international importance, and attracted a distinguished audience which included [[William I, German Emperor|Kaiser Wilhelm I]], [[Pedro II of Brazil|Emperor Pedro II of Brazil]] and numerous representatives of the various European royal houses.{{sfn|Spotts|1994|pp=66–67}} King Ludwig, unwilling to face contact with his fellow-royals or the assembled crowd, attended the dress rehearsals incognito, but left Bayreuth before the opening night.{{sfn|Hilmes|2011|p=136}}{{refn|Ludwig was so impressed by his preview that he arranged with Wagner to attend the third and final cycle of the festival. At the end, Wagner acknowledged Ludwig as the "sole benefactor and co-creator" of the work.{{sfn|Spotts|1994|p=69}}|group= n}} Most of Europe's leading composers were also present, including [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Tchaikovsky]], [[Charles Gounod|Gounod]], [[Anton Bruckner|Bruckner]], [[Edvard Grieg|Grieg]], [[Camille Saint-Saëns|Saint-Saëns]] and Wagner's father-in law [[Franz Liszt]], together with a large corps of music critics and opera house managers. The huge influx of visitors overwhelmed the resources of the modest-sized town and caused considerable discomfort to some of the most distinguished of the guests; Tchaikovsky later described his sojourn at Bayreuth as a "struggle for existence".{{sfn|Spotts|1994|pp=66–67}}{{refn|Tchaikovsky described the ''Ring'' music to his brother as "unbelievable chaos through which there flash from time to time remarkably beautiful and striking details". His overall view was that "there surely was not anything more boring or long winded as this interminable thing".{{sfn|Steen|2009|p=671}} |group= n}}

Despite the careful preparation, the first Bayreuth performance of ''Das Rheingold'' was punctuated by several mishaps. Some scene changes were mishandled; at one point a backdrop was prematurely lifted to reveal a number of stagehands and stage machinery; early in scene 4, [[Franz Betz]] (as Wotan) mislaid the ring and had to go backstage to look for it;{{sfn|Spotts|1994|p=69}}{{sfn|Skelton|1994|p=265}} the gas lighting failed repeatedly, plunging the auditorium into darkness.{{sfn|Gutman|1971|p=491}} Some innovations worked well – the wheeled machinery used by the Rhinemaidens to simulate swimming was successful,{{sfn|Holman|2001|p=43}} and the quality of the singing pleased even Wagner, who was otherwise in despair and refused to present himself to the audience despite their clamouring for him.{{sfn|Spotts|1994|p=69}} The critics made much of the technical shortcomings, which were largely overcome during the course of the festival, although, to Wagner's fury, they failed to acknowledge this fact.{{sfn|Holman|2001|p=43}}

===Revivals===
====Traditional productions====
[[File:FischerRheingold.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|[[Emil Fischer (bass)|Emil Fischer]] as Wotan at the 1889 New York premiere]]
After the 1876 festival, ''Das Rheingold'' was not seen again at Bayreuth for 20 years, until Cosima revived the ''Ring'' cycle for the 1896 festival.{{sfn|Spotts|1994|p=116}} Meanwhile, opera houses across Europe sought to mount their own productions, the first to do so being the [[Vienna State Opera]], which staged ''Das Rheingold'' on 24 January 1878.<ref>{{cite web|title= Spielplan der Wiener Oper 1869 bis 1955|url= http://www.mdw.ac.at/iatgm/operapolitics/spielplan-wiener-oper/web/opus/142|publisher= Universität für Musik und Darstellende Wien|language= de|access-date= 27 July 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170105170731/http://www.mdw.ac.at/iatgm/operapolitics/spielplan-wiener-oper/web/opus/142|archive-date= 5 January 2017|url-status= dead}}</ref> In April 1878 ''Das Rheingold'' was produced in [[Leipzig]], as part of the first full ''Ring'' cycle to be staged outside Bayreuth.{{sfn|Jacobs|1980|pp=115–116}} London followed suit in May 1882, when ''Rheingold'' began a cycle at [[Her Majesty's Theatre|Her Majesty's Theatre, Haymarket]], under the baton of [[Anton Seidl]].{{sfn|Kennedy et al, 2013|p=770}} In the years following the London premiere, ''Ring'' cycles were staged in many European capitals. In [[Budapest]] on 26 January 1889, the first Hungarian performance of ''Das Rheingold'', conducted by the young [[Gustav Mahler]], was briefly interrupted when the prompt-box caught fire and a number of patrons fled the theatre.{{sfn|Carr|1997|p=51}}

The American premiere of ''Das Rheingold'' was given by the New York [[Metropolitan Opera]] in January 1889, as a single opera, with Seidl conducting. The production used [[Carl Emil Doepler]]'s original Bayreuth costume designs, and scenery was imported from Germany.<ref name=Met>{{cite web|title= United States premiere, ''Das Rheingold''|url= http://archives.metoperafamily.org/archives/scripts/cgiip.exe/WService=BibSpeed/fullcit.w?xCID=6970&limit=500&xBranch=ALL&xsdate=&xedate=&theterm=Das%20Rheingold%3A%20Alberich%20%5BBeck,%20Joseph%5D&x=0&xhomepath=&xhome=|publisher= Metropolitan Opera Archives|access-date= 28 July 2018|archive-date= 24 February 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210224211258/http://archives.metoperafamily.org/archives/scripts/cgiip.exe/WService=BibSpeed/fullcit.w?xCID=6970&limit=500&xBranch=ALL&xsdate=&xedate=&theterm=Das%20Rheingold%3A%20Alberich%20%5BBeck,%20Joseph%5D&x=0&xhomepath=&xhome=|url-status= dead}}</ref> According to ''[[The New York Times]]'', "[t]he scenery, costumes and effects were all designed and executed with great art and caused admirable results."<ref name=Met/> Of particular note was the performance of [[Joseph Beck (baritone)|Joseph Beck]] who sang Alberich: "a fine example of Wagnerian declamatory singing, His delivery of the famous curse of the ring was notably excellent in its distinctness and dramatic force".<ref name=Met/> On 4 March 1889, with largely the January cast, Seidl conducted ''Das Rheingold'' to begin the first American ''Ring'' cycle.<ref>{{cite web|title= United States premiere, ''Ring'' cycle|url= http://archives.metoperafamily.org/archives/frame.htm|publisher= Metropolitan Opera Archives|access-date= 28 July 2018|archive-date= 12 August 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180812164001/http://archives.metoperafamily.org/archives/frame.htm|url-status= dead}}</ref> Thereafter, ''Das Rheingold'', either alone or as part of the ''Ring'', became a regular feature of the international opera repertory, being seen in Saint Petersburg (1889), Paris (1901), Buenos Aires (1910), Melbourne (1913),{{refn|In Melbourne, the British impresario [[Thomas Quinlan (impresario)|Thomas Quinlan]] staged all four ''Ring'' operas, although not on consecutive evenings; he interspersed them with performances of operas by [[Giuseppe Verdi|Verdi]], [[Jacques Offenbach|Offenbach]], [[Charles Gounod|Gounod]] and others. The complete ''Ring'' cycle as an entity was not staged in Australia until 1998.<ref>{{cite web|title= The Melbourne Ring Cycle is a once in a century celebration|url= https://theconversation.com/the-melbourne-ring-cycle-is-a-once-in-a-century-celebration-19519|website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]|date= 22 November 2013|access-date= 29 July 2018}}</ref> |group= n}}, and Rio de Janeiro (1921), as well many other major venues.<ref name= Perfhist>{{cite web|title= Performance History|url= http://opera.stanford.edu/Wagner/Rheingold/history.html|work= opera.stanford.edu|publisher= Opera Glass|access-date= 29 July 2018}}</ref>

After the 1896 revival, ''Das Rheingold'' was being performed regularly at the Bayreuth Festival, although not every year, within a variety of ''Ring'' productions.<ref>{{cite web|title= Der Ring des Nibelungen at the Bayreuth Festival: all the productions|url= http://www.wagneropera.net/bayreuth/bayreuth-ring-productions.htm|publisher= Wagneropera.net|access-date= 1 August 2018}}</ref> Until the [[Second World War]], under the successive artistic control of Cosima (from 1896 to 1907), her son [[Siegfried Wagner|Siegfried]] (1908 to 1930) and Siegfried's widow [[Winifred Wagner|Winifred]] (1931 to 1943),{{sfn|Millington|2006|pp=147–148}} these productions did not deviate greatly from the stagings devised by Wagner for the 1876 premiere. With few exceptions, this generally conservative, even reverential approach – which extended to all Wagner's operas – tended to be mirrored in performances outside Bayreuth.{{sfn|Holman|2001|p=373}}

====New Bayreuth and experimentation====
The Bayreuth Festival, suspended after the Second World War, resumed in 1951 under [[Wieland Wagner]], Siegfried's son, who introduced his first ''Ring'' cycle in the "New Bayreuth" style. This was the antithesis of all that had been seen at Bayreuth before, as scenery, costumes and traditional gestures were abandoned and replaced by a bare disc, with evocative lighting effects to signify changes of scene or mood.{{sfn|Millington|2006|p=165}} The stark New Bayreuth style dominated most ''Rheingold'' and ''Ring'' productions worldwide until the 1970s, when a reaction to its bleak austerity produced a number of fresh approaches. The Bayreuth centenary ''Ring'' production of 1976, directed by [[Patrice Chéreau]] provided a significant landmark in the history of Wagner stagings: "Chéreau's demythologization of the tetralogy entailed an anti-heroic view of the work ... his setting of the action in an industrialized society ... along with occasional 20th century costumes and props, suggested a continuity between Wagner's time and our own".{{sfn|Millington|2006|p=166}} Many of this production's features were highly controversial: the opening of ''Das Rheingold'' revealed a vast hydro-electric dam in which the gold is stored, guarded by the Rhinemaidens who were portrayed, in Spotts's words, as "three voluptuous tarts" – a depiction, he says, which "caused a shock from which no one quite recovered".{{sfn|Spotts|1994|pp=282–284}} According to ''[[The Observer]]''{{'}}s critic, "I had not experienced in the theatre protest as furious as that which greeted ''Das Rheingold''."<ref>{{cite news|last=Heyworth|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Heyworth|title=Guns on the Rhine: music|newspaper=[[The Observer]]|date=15 August 1976|page=19|id={{ProQuest|476337514}}}} {{subscription required}}</ref> Eventually this hostility was overcome; the final performance of this production, in 1980, was followed by an ovation that lasted ninety minutes.{{sfn|Holman|2001|p=374}}

====Post-1980s====
The iconoclastic centenary ''Ring'' was followed by numerous original interpretations, at Bayreuth and elsewhere, in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. The 1988 festival opened with [[Harry Kupfer]]'s grim interpretation of ''Das Rheingold'', in which Wotan and the other gods were represented as gangsters in mafioso sunglasses. This entire ''Ring'', says Spotts, was "a parable of how the power-hungry cheat, lie, bully, terrorise and kill to get what they want".{{sfn|Spotts|1994|p=299}} In [[August Everding]]'s Chicago ''Reingold'' (which would become part of a full ''Ring'' cycle four years later), the Rhinemaidens were attached to elasticated ropes manipulated from the wings, which enabled them to cavort freely through the air, using [[lip sync]] to co-ordinate with off-stage singers. [[Edward Rothstein]], writing in ''[[The New York Times]]'', found the production "a puzzle ... cluttered with contraptions and conceits" which, he imagined, were visual motifs which would be clarified in later operas.<ref>{{cite news|first=Rothstein|last=Edward|author-link=Edward Rothstein|title=Review/Opera; The Lyric in Chicago Starts Its ''Ring''|url= https://www.nytimes.com/1993/02/09/arts/review-opera-the-lyric-in-chicago-starts-its-ring.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date= 9 February 1993}} {{subscription required}}</ref> [[Keith Warner]], in his 2004 production for [[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden]], portrayed, according to Barry Millington's analysis, "the shift from a deistic universe to one controlled by human beings".{{sfn|Millington|2006|p=169}} The dangers of subverted scientific progress were demonstrated in the third ''Rheingold'' scene, where Nibelheim was represented as a medical chamber of horrors, replete with [[vivisection]]s and "unspeakable" genetic experiments.{{sfn|Millington|2006|p=169}}

From the late 1980s a backlash against the tendency towards ever more outlandish interpretations of the ''Ring'' cycle led to several new productions in the more traditional manner.{{sfn|Millington|2006|p=167}} [[Otto Schenk]]'s staging of ''Das Rheingold'', first seen at the [[Metropolitan Opera|New York Met]] in 1987 and forming the prelude to his full ''Ring'' cycle two years later, was described by ''The New York Times'' as "charmingly old fashioned", and as "a relief to many beleaguered Wagnerites".<ref name= Tommasini/> [[James Morris (bass-baritone)|James Morris]], who sang Wotan in the 1987 production, and [[James Levine]], the original conductor, both returned in 2009 when Schenk brought his ''Ring'' cycle back to the Met for a final performance.<ref name= Tommasini>{{cite news|first=Tommasini|last=Anthony|author-link=Anthony Tommasini|title= Traditional ''Ring'' Begins Its Finale|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/27/arts/music/27rhei.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date= 26 March 2009}} {{subscription required}}</ref>