Editing Coptic language (section)

== Phonology ==
Coptic provides the clearest indication of Later Egyptian [[phonology]] from its writing system, which fully indicates vowel sounds and occasionally stress patterns. The phonological system of Later Egyptian is also better known than that of the Classical phase of the language because of a greater number of sources indicating Egyptian sounds, including [[Amarna letters|cuneiform letters]] containing transcriptions of Egyptian words and phrases, and Egyptian renderings of [[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]] names. Coptic sounds, in addition, are known from a variety of Coptic-Arabic papyri in which Arabic letters were used to transcribe Coptic and vice versa. They date to the medieval Islamic period, when Coptic was still spoken.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sijpesteijn |first1=Petra |title=Papyrology and the History of Early Islamic Egypt |last2=Lennart Sundelin |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=978-90-04-13886-5 |location=Leiden, Boston}}</ref>

=== Vowels ===
There are some differences of opinion among Coptic language scholars on the correct phonetic interpretation of the writing system of Coptic. Differences centre on how to interpret the pairs of letters {{Coptic|ⲉ/ⲏ}} and {{Coptic|ⲟ/ⲱ}}. In the [[Attic Greek|Attic dialect]] of [[Ancient Greek]] in the 5th century BC, the first member of each pair is a short closed vowel {{IPA|/e, o/}}, and the second member is a long open vowel {{IPA|/ɛː, ɔː/}}. In some interpretations of Coptic phonology,{{sfn|Plumley|1948}} it is assumed that the length difference is primary, with {{Coptic|ⲉ/ⲏ}} {{IPA|/e, eː/}} and {{Coptic|ⲟ/ⲱ}} is {{IPA|/o, oː/}}. Other scholars{{sfn|Greenberg|1990}} argue for a different analysis in which {{Coptic|ⲉ/ⲏ}} and {{Coptic|ⲟ/ⲱ}} are interpreted as {{IPA|/e, ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/o, ɔ/}}.

These two charts show the two theories of Coptic vowel phonology:

{{columns-start}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+[[Monophthong]] phonemes<br />(length theory)
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|iː}}
|
| {{IPA link|uː}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| {{IPA link|eː}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|e}}
|
| {{IPA link|oː}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|o}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|
| {{IPA link|ə}}
|
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɑ}}
|}
{{column}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+[[Monophthong]] phonemes<br />(vowel quality theory)
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|iː}}
| 
| {{IPA link|uː}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}}
| 
| {{IPA link|o}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|ɛ}}
| {{IPA link|ə}}
| {{IPA link|ɔ}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɑ}}
|}
{{columns-end}}

Dialects vary in their realisation. The difference between {{IPAblink|o}} and {{IPAblink|u}} seems to be allophonic. Evidence is not sufficient to demonstrate that these are distinct vowels, and if they are, the difference has a very low [[functional load]]. For dialects that use orthographic {{angbr|{{Coptic|ⲉⲓ}}}} for a single vowel, there appears to be no phonetic difference from {{angbr|{{Coptic|ⲓ}}}}.

Double orthographic vowels are presumed here to be long, but there is considerable debate as to whether these double vowels represent long vowels or [[glottal stop]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dahlgren |first1=Sonja |title=The system of Coptic vowel reduction: Evidence from L2 Greek usage |journal=Italian Journal of Linguistics |date=May 2022 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=211–228 |doi=10.26346/1120-2726-155}}</ref>

{{columns-start}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Bohairic vowels
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{Coptic|ⲉⲓ}} {{IPAslink|i}}
| {{Coptic|ⲟⲩ}} {{IPAslink|u}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| {{Coptic|ⲏ}} {{IPAslink|e}}
| {{Coptic|ⲱ}} {{IPAslink|o}}
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| {{Coptic|ⲉ}} {{IPAslink|ɛ}}
| {{Coptic|ⲟ}} {{IPAslink|ɔ}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|colspan=2| {{Coptic|ⲁ}} {{IPAslink|a}}
|}
{{column}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Sahidic vowels
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{Coptic|ⲉⲓ}} {{IPAslink|i}}
| {{Coptic|ⲟⲩ}} {{IPAslink|u}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| {{Coptic|ⲏ}} {{IPAslink|e}} &nbsp; {{Coptic|ⲏⲏ}} {{IPAslink|eː}}
| {{Coptic|ⲱ}} {{IPAslink|o}} &nbsp; {{Coptic|ⲱⲱ}} {{IPAslink|oː}}
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| {{Coptic|ⲉ}} {{IPAslink|ɛ}} &nbsp; {{Coptic|ⲉⲉ}} {{IPAslink|ɛː}}
| {{Coptic|ⲟ}} {{IPAslink|ɔ}} &nbsp; {{Coptic|ⲟⲟ}} {{IPAslink|ɔː}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|colspan=2| {{Coptic|ⲁ}} {{IPAslink|a}} &nbsp; {{Coptic|ⲁⲁ}} {{IPAslink|aː}}
|}
{{column}}
{| class='wikitable' style="text-align: center"
|+Lycopolitan vowels
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{Coptic|ⲉⲓ}} {{IPAslink|i}}
| {{Coptic|ⲟⲩ}} {{IPAslink|u}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| {{Coptic|ⲏ}} {{IPAslink|e}} &nbsp; {{Coptic|ⲏⲏ}} {{IPAslink|eː}}
| {{Coptic|ⲱ}} {{IPAslink|o}} &nbsp; {{Coptic|ⲱⲱ}} {{IPAslink|oː}}
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| {{Coptic|ⲉ}} {{IPAslink|ɛ}} &nbsp; {{Coptic|ⲉⲉ}} {{IPAslink|ɛː}}
| {{Coptic|ⲟⲟ}} {{IPAslink|ɔː}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|colspan=2| {{Coptic|ⲁ}} {{IPAslink|a}} &nbsp; {{Coptic|ⲁⲁ}} {{IPAslink|aː}}
|}
{{column}}
{| class='wikitable' style="text-align: center"
|+Akhmimic vowels
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{Coptic|ⲉⲓ}} {{IPAslink|i}} &nbsp; {{Coptic|ⲓⲉⲓ}} {{IPAslink|iː}}
| {{Coptic|ⲟⲩ}} {{IPAslink|u}} &nbsp; {{Coptic|ⲟⲩⲟⲩ}} {{IPAslink|uː}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| {{Coptic|ⲏ}} {{IPAslink|e}}
| {{Coptic|ⲱ}} {{IPAslink|o}}
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| {{Coptic|ⲉ}} {{IPAslink|ɛ}} &nbsp; {{Coptic|ⲉⲉ}} {{IPAslink|ɛː}}
| {{Coptic|ⲟⲟ}} {{IPAslink|ɔː}}{{efn|Frequent spelling of this vowel as {{Coptic|ⲱⲱ}} indicates that it is in [[free variation]] with {{IPAblink|[oː]}}.}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|colspan=2| {{Coptic|ⲁ}} {{IPAslink|a}} &nbsp; {{Coptic|ⲁⲁ}} {{IPAslink|aː}}
|}
{{notelist}}
{{columns-end}}

There is no length distinction in final stressed position, but only those vowels that occur long appear there: {{angbr|{{Coptic|(ⲉ)ⲓ, ⲉ, ⲁ, ⲟ~ⲱ, ⲟⲩ}}}}.

In Sahidic, the letter {{Coptic|ⲉ}} was used for short {{IPAslink|e}} before back fricatives, and also for unstressed schwa {{IPAslink|ə}}. It's possible there was also a distinction between short {{IPAslink|ɛ}} and {{IPAslink|a}}, but if so the functional load was extremely low.

Bohairic did not have long vowels. {{IPAslink|i}} was only written {{angbr|{{Coptic|ⲓ}}}}. As above, it's possible that {{IPAslink|u}} and {{IPAslink|o}} were distinct vowels rather than just allophones.

In Late Coptic (that is, Late Bohairic), the vowels were reduced to those found in Egyptian Arabic, {{IPA|/a, i, u/}}.{{dubious|date=May 2021|reason=Egyptian Arabic has more than these vowel values, only Literary Arabic based transliterations prefer to stick to these that are the conventional vowels of Classical Arabic}} {{angbr|{{Coptic|ⲱ, ⲟ}}}} became {{IPAslink|u}}, {{angbr|{{Coptic|ⲉ}}}} became {{IPAslink|æ}}, and {{angbr|{{Coptic|ⲏ}}}} became either {{IPAslink|ɪ}} or {{IPAslink|æ}}. It is difficult to explain {{angbr|{{Coptic|ⲏ}}}}. However, it generally became {{IPAslink|æ}} in stressed monosyllables, {{IPAslink|ɪ}} in unstressed monosyllables, and in polysyllables, {{IPAslink|æ}} when followed by {{IPAslink|i}}, and {{IPAslink|ɪ}} when not.

There were no doubled orthographic vowels in Mesokemic. Some representative correspondences with Sahidic are:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
!Sahidic stressed vowels
|{{Coptic|ⲁ}}||{{Coptic|ⲁⲁ, ⲉⲉ}}||{{Coptic|ⲏ}}||{{Coptic|ⲟ}}||{{Coptic|ⲱ}}||{{Coptic|ⲱⲱ}}
|-
!Mesokemic equivalent
|{{Coptic|ⲉ}}||{{Coptic|ⲏ}}||{{Coptic|ⲏ}}||{{Coptic|ⲁ}}||{{Coptic|ⲟ}}||{{Coptic|ⲱ}}
|}

It is not clear if these correspondences reflect distinct pronunciations in Mesokemic, or if they are an imitation of the long Greek vowels {{angbr|η, ω}}.

=== Consonants ===
As with the vowels, there are differences of opinion over the correct interpretation of the Coptic consonant letters, particularly with regard to the letters {{Coptic|ϫ}} and {{Coptic|ϭ}}. {{Coptic|ϫ}} is transcribed as {{angle bracket|j}} in many older Coptic sources and {{Coptic|ϭ}} as {{angle bracket|ɡ}}{{sfn|Plumley|1948}} or {{angle bracket|č}}. {{harvtxt|Lambdin|1983}} notes that the current conventional pronunciations are different from the probable ancient pronunciations: Sahidic {{Coptic|ϫ}} was probably pronounced {{IPAblink|tʲ}} and {{Coptic|ϭ}} was probably pronounced {{IPAblink|kʲ}}. {{harvtxt|Reintges|2004|p=22}} suggests that {{Coptic|ϫ}} was pronounced {{IPAblink|tʃ}}.

Beside being found in Greek loanwords, the letters {{angle bracket|φ, θ, χ}} were used in native words for a sequence of {{IPA|/p, t, k/}} plus {{IPAslink|h}}, as in {{Coptic|ⲑⲉ}} = {{Coptic|ⲧ-ϩⲉ}} "the-way" (f.sg.) and {{Coptic|ⲫⲟϥ}} = {{Coptic|ⲡ-ϩⲟϥ}} "the-snake" (m.sg). The letters did not have this use in Bohairic, which used them for single sounds.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Coptic consonants
|-
!colspan=2|
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
!colspan=2| [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
!colspan=2| [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}} ⟨{{Coptic|ⲙ}}⟩
|colspan=2| {{IPA link|n}} ⟨{{Coptic|ⲛ}}⟩
|
|colspan=2| 
|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Obstruent]]
! <small>[[Aspirated consonant|aspirate]]</small>{{efn|The aspirate series is present only in Bohairic.}}
| {{IPA link|p}}{{IPA link|ʰ}} ⟨{{Coptic|ⲫ}}⟩
|colspan=2| {{IPA link|tʰ}} ⟨{{Coptic|ⲑ}}⟩
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃʰ}} ⟨{{Coptic|ϭ}}⟩{{efn|name=fn1|The letter {{Coptic|ϭ}} has two values: In Bohairic it represents {{IPAslink|t͡ʃʰ}}, the aspirated counterpart to {{Coptic|ϫ}} {{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}}. In the other dialects it represents {{IPAslink|kʲ}}, the [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalized]] counterpart to {{Coptic|ⲕ}} {{IPAslink|k}}.}}
|colspan=2| {{IPA link|kʰ}} ⟨{{Coptic|ⲭ}}⟩
| 
|-
! <small>[[Tenuis consonant|tenuis]]</small>
| {{IPA link|p}} ⟨{{Coptic|ⲡ}}⟩
|colspan=2| {{IPA link|t}} ⟨{{Coptic|ⲧ}}⟩
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}} ⟨{{Coptic|ϫ}}⟩
| {{IPA link|k}}{{IPA link|ʲ}} ⟨{{Coptic|ϭ}}⟩{{efn|name=fn1}}
| {{IPA link|k}} ⟨{{Coptic|ⲕ}}⟩
|
|-
! <small>[[fricative]]</small>
| {{IPA link|f}} ⟨{{Coptic|ϥ}}⟩
|colspan=2| {{IPA link|s}} ⟨{{Coptic|ⲥ}}⟩
| {{IPA link|ʃ}} ⟨{{Coptic|ϣ}}⟩
| {{IPA link|xʲ}} ⟨{{Coptic|ⳋ}} {{Coptic|ⳃ}}⟩{{efn|{{IPAslink|xʲ}} is present only in the minor Coptic dialects ''P'' and ''I'',{{explain|date=January 2022|reason=What is the meaning of ''P'' and ''I''?}} where it is written ⟨{{Coptic|ⳋ}}⟩ and ⟨{{Coptic|ⳃ}}⟩ respectively.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Funk|first=Wolf-Peter|date=1987|title=Die Zeugen des koptischen Literaturdialekts I7|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1524/zaes.1987.114.12.117/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde|volume=114|issue=1–2|page=129|doi=10.1524/zaes.1987.114.12.117|s2cid=192659355}}</ref>}}
| {{IPA link|x}} ⟨{{Coptic|ϧ}} {{Coptic|ⳉ}}⟩{{efn|{{IPAslink|x}} is written ⟨{{Coptic|ϧ}}⟩ in Bohairic and Dialect ''P'', and ⟨{{Coptic|ⳉ}}⟩ in Akhmimic and Dialect ''I''.}}
| {{IPA link|h}} ⟨{{Coptic|ϩ}}⟩
|-
!colspan=2| [[Approximant]]
| {{IPA link|v}} ⟨{{Coptic|ⲃ}}⟩{{efn|Coptic {{Coptic|ⲃ}} is alternatively interpreted as a [[voiced bilabial fricative]] {{IPAblink|β}}.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Takács|first=Gábor|date=2015|title=Questions of Egyptian Historical Phonology and Afro-Asiatic|url=https://poj.peeters-leuven.be/content.php?url=article&id=3139332&journal_code=BIOR|journal=Bibliotheca Orientalis|volume=72|issue=5–6|pages=565–585|doi=10.2143/BIOR.72.5.3139332|quote=Firstly, as is well-known, Coptic {{Coptic|ⲃ}} had the value {{IPAblink|v}} or less probably {{IPAblink|β}}.|quote-page=569}}</ref> Like the other [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]] consonants, it belongs to the class of [[sonorant]]s and may occupy the syllable [[Syllable#Nucleus|nucleus]] ({{tooltip|2=Compare|''cf.''|dotted=yes}} Sahidic: {{Coptic|ⲧⲃ̄ⲧ}} {{IPA|/tv̩t/}} "fish").}}
| {{IPA link|r}} ⟨{{Coptic|ⲣ}}⟩
| {{IPA link|l}} ⟨{{Coptic|ⲗ}}⟩
| {{IPA link|j}} ⟨{{Coptic|ⲉⲓ}}⟩
|colspan=2| {{IPA link|w}} ⟨{{Coptic|ⲟⲩ}}⟩
|
|}
{{notelist}}

It is possible that Coptic has a [[glottal stop]], {{IPAblink|ʔ}}, though there is no definitive evidence. Supporters of this theory have posited that the glottal stop was represented with {{Coptic|ⲁ}} word-initially, with {{Coptic|ⲓ}} word-finally in monosyllabic words in northern dialects, and {{Coptic|ⲉ}} in monosyllabic words in Akhmimic and Assiutic. In Sahidic, it has been postulated that it represented the second of a doubled vowel.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Depuydt |first1=Leo |title=On Coptic Sounds |journal=Orientalia |date=1993 |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=338–375 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43077997?casa_token=oZxDeM5HaJgAAAAA%3AOD5uZ3zPezgeokIORGzxc5voGNQLITKj9q8pn5GlIpdEFegCQSwIo-g4jgv25yh8JWO8PIeOgsThGyCvqYcVpqJ0gFaMCHaVSvvVxxlW6rW70AF5k4Om&seq=8 |issn=0030-5367}}</ref>

In Late Coptic (ca. 14th century), Bohairic sounds that did not occur in Egyptian Arabic were lost. A possible shift from a tenuis-aspirate distinction to voiced-tenuis is only attested from the alveolars, the only place that Arabic has such a contrast.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Late Coptic consonants
|-
! Original<br />pronunciation
! Late<br />pronunciation
|-
| {{IPA link|β}} || {{IPA link|w}} (final {{IPAblink|b}})
|-
| {{IPA link|p}} || {{IPA link|b}}
|-
| {{IPA link|pʰ}} || {{IPA link|b}} ~ {{IPA link|f}}
|-
| {{IPA link|t}} || {{IPA link|d}}
|-
| {{IPA link|tʰ}} || {{IPA link|d}} 
|-
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}} || {{IPA link|ɟ}}{{NoteTag|{{IPAblink|ɟ}} is the local equivalent of Cairene {{IPAblink|ɡ}}.}}
|-
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃʰ}} || {{IPA link|ʃ}}
|-
| {{IPA link|k}} || {{IPA link|k}}
|-
| {{IPA link|kʰ}} || {{IPA link|k}}
|}

Earlier phases of Egyptian may have contrasted voiceless and voiced bilabial plosives, but the distinction seems to have been lost. Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic all interchangeably use their respective graphemes to indicate either sound; for example, Coptic for 'iron' appears alternately as {{Coptic|ⲡⲉⲛⲓⲡⲉ}}, {{Coptic|ⲃⲉⲛⲓⲡⲉ}} and {{Coptic|ⲃⲓⲛⲓⲃⲉ}}. That probably reflects dialect variation. Both letters were interchanged with {{Coptic|ⲫ}} and {{Coptic|ϥ}} to indicate {{IPAslink|f}}, and {{Coptic|ⲃ}} was also used in many texts to indicate the bilabial approximant {{IPAslink|w}}. [[Coptology|Coptologists]] believe that Coptic {{Coptic|ⲃ}} was articulated as a [[voiced bilabial fricative]] {{IPAblink|β}}. In the present-day Coptic Church services, this letter is realised as {{IPAslink|v}}, but it is almost certainly a result of the [[Coptic pronunciation reform|pronunciation reforms]] instituted in the 19th century.

Whereas Old Egyptian contrasts {{IPAslink|s}} and {{IPAslink|z}}, the two sounds appear to be in [[free variation]] in Coptic, as they were since the Middle Egyptian period. However, they are contrasted only in Greek loans; for example, native Coptic {{Coptic|ⲁⲛⲍⲏⲃ}} (''anzēb'') and {{Coptic|ⲁⲛⲥⲏⲃⲉ}} (''ansēbə'') 'school' are homophonous. Other consonants that sometimes appear to be either in free variation or to have different distributions across dialects are {{IPAblink|t}} and {{IPAblink|d}}, {{IPAblink|ɾ}} and {{IPAblink|l}} (especially in the Fayyumic dialect, a feature of earlier Egyptian) and {{IPAblink|k}} and {{IPAblink|ɡ}}, with the voiceless [[stop consonant]]s being more common in Coptic words and the voiced ones in Greek borrowings. Apart from the [[liquid consonant]]s, this pattern may indicate a [[sound change]] in Later Egyptian, leading to a neutralisation of voiced alveolar and velar plosives. When the voiced plosives are realised, it is usually the result of [[Consonant voicing and devoicing|consonant voicing]] in proximity to {{IPAslink|n}}.

A few early manuscripts have a letter {{coptic|ⳋ}} or {{coptic|ⳃ}} ''ç'' where Sahidic and Bohairic have {{coptic|ϣ}} ''š''. and Akhmimic has {{coptic|ⳉ}} ''x''. This sound seems to have been lost early on.