Editing Communication (section)

===Animals===
{{main|Animal communication}}
Animal communication is the process of giving and taking information among animals.<ref>{{harvnb|Ruben|2002|pp=25–26}}</ref> The field studying animal communication is called [[zoosemiotics]].<ref>{{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=15}}</ref> There are many parallels to human communication. One is that humans and many animals express sympathy by synchronizing their movements and postures.<ref>{{harvnb|Håkansson|Westander|2013|p=107}}</ref> Nonetheless, there are also significant differences, like the fact that humans also engage in verbal communication, which uses language, while animal communication is restricted to non-verbal (i.e. non-linguistic) communication.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=15}} | {{harvnb|Håkansson|Westander|2013|p=1}} }}</ref> Some theorists have tried to distinguish human from animal communication based on the claim that animal communication lacks a [[Reference|referential function]] and is thus not able to refer to external phenomena. However, various observations seem to contradict this view, such as the warning signals in response to different types of predators used by [[vervet monkeys]], [[Gunnison's prairie dog]]s, and [[red squirrel]]s.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Håkansson|Westander|2013|p=13}} | {{harvnb|Hebb|Donderi|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-65mAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT269 269]}} }}</ref> A further approach is to draw the distinction based on the complexity of [[human language]], especially its almost limitless ability to combine basic units of meaning into more complex meaning structures. One view states that [[recursion]] sets human language apart from all non-human communicative systems.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Håkansson|Westander|2013|p=14}} | {{harvnb|Luuk|Luuk|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9S1pDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA206 206]}} }}</ref> Another difference is that human communication is frequently linked to the conscious intention to send information, which is often not discernable for animal communication.<ref>{{harvnb|Håkansson|Westander|2013|p=5}}</ref> Despite these differences, some theorists use the term "[[animal language]]" to refer to certain communicative patterns in animal behavior that have similarities with human language.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Houston|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-hiBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA266 266, 279]}} | {{harvnb|Baker|Hengeveld|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=R8uWDVdRQlYC&pg=PA25 25]}} }}</ref>

[[File:Lampyris noctiluca.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo of a glowing firefly|Many species of fireflies, such as the ''[[Lampyris noctiluca]]'', communicate with light to attract mates.]]
Animal communication can take a variety of forms, including visual, auditory, tactile, [[olfactic communication|olfactory]], and gustatory communication. Visual communication happens in the form of movements, gestures, facial expressions, and colors. Examples are movements seen during [[Courtship display|mating rituals]], the colors of birds, and the rhythmic light of [[fireflies]]. Auditory communication takes place through vocalizations by species like birds, [[primates]], and dogs. Auditory signals are frequently used to alert and warn. Lower-order living systems often have simple response patterns to auditory messages, reacting either by approach or avoidance.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ruben|2002|p=26}} | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=15}} }}</ref> More complex response patterns are observed for higher animals, which may use different signals for different types of predators and responses. For example, some primates use one set of signals for airborne predators and another for land predators.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Danesi|2000|pp=58–59}} | {{harvnb|Hebb|Donderi|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-65mAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT269 269]}} }}</ref> Tactile communication occurs through touch, [[vibrational communication|vibration]], stroking, rubbing, and pressure. It is especially relevant for parent-young relations, courtship, social greetings, and defense. Olfactory and gustatory communication happen chemically through smells and tastes, respectively.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ruben|2002|p=26}} | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=15}} }}</ref>

There are large differences between species concerning what functions communication plays, how much it is realized, and the behavior used to communicate.<ref>{{harvnb|Håkansson|Westander|2013|p=2}}</ref> Common functions include the fields of [[courtship]] and mating, parent-offspring relations, social relations, navigation, self-defense, and [[territoriality]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ruben|2002|pp=26–29}}</ref> One part of courtship and mating consists in identifying and attracting potential mates. This can happen through various means. [[Grasshoppers]] and [[crickets]] communicate acoustically by using songs, [[moths]] rely on chemical means by releasing [[pheromones]], and fireflies send visual messages by flashing light.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ruben|2002|pp=26–27}} | {{harvnb|Håkansson|Westander|2013|p=2}} }}</ref> For some species, the offspring depends on the parent for its survival. One central function of parent-offspring communication is to recognize each other. In some cases, the parents are also able to guide the offspring's behavior.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ruben|2002|p=27}} | {{harvnb|Håkansson|Westander|2013|pp=19–20}} }}</ref>

[[Social animal]]s, like [[chimpanzees]], [[bonobos]], wolves, and dogs, engage in various forms of communication to express their feelings and build relations.<ref>{{harvnb|Håkansson|Westander|2013|p=3}}</ref> Communication can aid navigation by helping animals move through their environment in a purposeful way, e.g. to locate food, avoid enemies, and follow other animals. In [[bats]], this happens through [[Animal echolocation|echolocation]], i.e. by sending auditory signals and processing the information from the echoes. [[Bees]] are another often-discussed case in this respect since they perform a type of [[Waggle dance|dance]] to indicate to other bees where flowers are located.<ref>{{harvnb|Ruben|2002|pp=27–28}}</ref> In regard to self-defense, communication is used to warn others and to assess whether a costly fight can be avoided.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ruben|2002|p=28}} | {{harvnb|Schenk|Seabloom|2010|p=5}} }}</ref> Another function of communication is to mark and claim territories used for food and mating. For example, some male birds claim a hedge or part of a meadow by using [[Bird song|songs]] to keep other males away and attract females.<ref>{{harvnb|Ruben|2002|pp=28–29}}</ref>

Two competing theories in the study of animal communication are [[Nature versus nurture|nature theory and nurture theory]]. Their conflict concerns to what extent animal communication is programmed into the genes as a form of adaptation rather than learned from previous experience as a form of [[Classical conditioning|conditioning]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Danesi|2000|pp=58–59}} | {{harvnb|Håkansson|Westander|2013|p=7}} }}</ref> To the degree that it is learned, it usually happens through [[Imprinting (psychology)|imprinting]], i.e. as a form of learning that only occurs in a certain phase and is then mostly irreversible.<ref>{{harvnb|Håkansson|Westander|2013|pp=14–15}}</ref>