Editing Cicada (section)

==Predators, parasites, and pathogens==
[[File:Eastern cicada killer wasp (Sphecius speciosus) with Cicada.jpg|thumb|upright|Eastern cicada killer wasp (''[[Sphecius speciosus]]'') with cicada prey, United States]]
Cicadas are commonly eaten by birds and mammals,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marlatt |first1=C. L |title=The periodical cicada |series=Bulletin / U.S. Dept. Of Agriculture, Division of Entomology; no. 14, new ser |date=1898 |page=106 |publisher=U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Entomology |oclc=903871454 |hdl=2027/hvd.32044107249229 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> as well as [[bat]]s, [[wasp]]s, [[mantis]]es, [[spider]]s, and [[Asilidae|robber flies]]. In times of mass emergence of cicadas, various amphibians, fish, reptiles, mammals, and birds change their foraging habits so as to benefit from the glut. Newly hatched nymphs may be eaten by ants, and nymphs living underground are preyed on by burrowing mammals such as moles.<ref name=Capinera>{{cite book|author=Capinera, John L. |title=Encyclopedia of Entomology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i9ITMiiohVQC&pg=PA876|year=2008 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-6242-1 |page=876}}</ref> In northern Japan, brown bears prey on final instar nymphs of cicadas during summer by digging up the ground.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Tomita |first1=Kanji |last2=Hiura |first2=Tsutom |date=2020 |title=Brown bear digging for cicada nymphs: a novel interaction in a forest ecosystem |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ecy.2899 |journal=Ecology |language=en |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=e02899 |doi=10.1002/ecy.2899 |pmid=31544228 |bibcode=2020Ecol..101E2899T |hdl=2115/86161 |s2cid=202732839 |issn=1939-9170|hdl-access=free }}</ref> In Australia, cicadas are preyed on by the Australian cicada killer wasp (''[[Exeirus lateritius]]''), which stings and stuns cicadas high in the trees, making them drop to the ground, where the cicada hunter mounts and carries them, pushing with its hind legs, sometimes over a distance of 100 m, until they can be shoved down into its burrow, where the numb cicadas are placed onto one of many shelves in a "catacomb", to form the food stock for the wasp grub that grows out of the egg deposited there.<ref>{{Cite book | last=Tillyard | first=R. J. | title=The Insects of Australia and New Zealand | place=Sydney | publisher=Angus & Robertson |year=1926 | pages=298–299}}</ref> A [[Tettigoniidae|katydid]] predator from Australia is capable of attracting singing male cicadas of a variety of species by imitating the timed click replies of sexually receptive female cicadas, which respond in pair formation by flicking their wings.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marshall |first1=David C. |last2=Hill |first2=Kathy B. R. |title=Versatile Aggressive Mimicry of Cicadas by an Australian Predatory Katydid |journal=PLOS ONE |date=2009-01-14 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=e4185 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0004185 |pmid=19142230 |pmc=2615208 |bibcode=2009PLoSO...4.4185M |doi-access=free }}</ref> Their prime-number life cycle prevents predators with a life cycle of two or more years from synchronising with their emergence.<ref name=dijusto/>

Several fungal diseases infect and kill adult cicadas, while other [[entomopathogenic fungus|fungi]] in the genera ''[[Ophiocordyceps]]'' and ''[[Isaria]]'' attack nymphs.<ref name=Capinera/> ''[[Massospora cicadina]]'' specifically attacks the adults of periodical cicadas, the spores remaining dormant in the soil between outbreaks.<ref name="Massospora">{{cite journal | title= ''Massospora cicadina'' Peck: A Fungous Parasite of the Periodical Cicada| first1= A. T. | last1= Speare | journal= Mycologia | volume= 13 | issue= 2 | year=1921 | pages= 72–82 | doi= 10.2307/3753297| jstor= 3753297 }}</ref> This fungus is also capable of dosing cicadas with [[psilocybin]], the [[psychedelic drug]] found in [[magic mushrooms]], as well as [[cathinone]], an [[alkaloid]] similar to various [[amphetamines]]. These chemicals alter the behaviour of the cicadas, driving males to copulate, including attempts with males, and is thought to be beneficial to the fungus, as the fungal spores are dispersed by a larger number of infected carriers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Boyce|first1=Greg R.|last2=Gluck-Thaler|first2=Emile|last3=Slot|first3=Jason C.|last4=Stajich|first4=Jason E.|last5=Davis|first5=William J.|last6=James|first6=Tim Y.|last7=Cooley|first7=John R.|last8=Panaccione|first8=Daniel G.|last9=Eilenberg|first9=Jørgen|date=2019|title=Psychoactive plant- and mushroom-associated alkaloids from two behavior modifying cicada pathogens|journal=Fungal Ecology|language=en|volume=41|pages=147–164|doi=10.1016/j.funeco.2019.06.002|pmid=31768192|pmc=6876628|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019FunE...41..147B }}</ref>

Plants can also defend themselves against cicadas. Although cicadas can feed on the roots of gymnosperms, it has been found that resinous conifers such as pine do not allow the eggs of ''Magicicada'' to hatch, the resin sealing up the egg cavities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lloyd|first1=Monte|last2=White|first2=JoAnn|date=1987|title=Xylem Feeding by Periodical Cicada Nymphs on Pine and Grass Roots, With Novel Suggestions for Pest Control in Conifer Plantations and Orchards|url=https://kb.osu.edu/handle/1811/23194|journal=Ohio Journal of Science|language=en-US|volume=87|issue=3|pages=50–54|hdl=1811/23194|issn=0030-0950}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=White|first1=Joann|last2=Lloyd|first2=Monte|last3=Karban|first3=Richard|date=1982|title=Why Don't Periodical Cicadas 1 Normally Live in Coniferous Forests?|url=https://academic.oup.com/ee/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/ee/11.2.475|journal=Environmental Entomology|language=en|volume=11|issue=2|pages=475–482|doi=10.1093/ee/11.2.475|issn=1938-2936}}</ref>

===Antipredator adaptations===
{{further|Antipredator adaptation|Periodical cicada}}
[[File:Cicada camouflaged on an olive tree.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Cicada [[Disruptive coloration|disruptively camouflaged]] on an olive tree]]

Cicadas use a variety of strategies to evade predators. Large cicadas can fly rapidly to escape if disturbed.<ref name=WashPost>{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=David |date=4 May 2004 |title=Cicadas' bizarre survival strategy |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4893167 |agency=[[The Washington Post]] |work=[[NBC News]] |access-date=24 August 2015}}</ref> Many are extremely well [[camouflage]]d<ref name=WashPost/><ref>{{cite news |title=Animals disappear using camouflage |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/picturegalleries/earth/3247746/Animals-disappear-using-camouflage.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/picturegalleries/earth/3247746/Animals-disappear-using-camouflage.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=The Telegraph |access-date=24 August 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref> to evade predators such as birds that hunt by sight. Being coloured like tree bark and [[Disruptive coloration|disruptively patterned]] to break up their outlines, they are difficult to discern;<ref>{{cite web |last1=Goldman |first1=Jason G. |title=1-Trick Chameleon: Predators Learn to See Through Camouflage |date=25 October 2013 |url=http://nautil.us/blog/1_trick-chameleon-predators-learn-to-see-through-camouflage |publisher=Nautilus |access-date=24 August 2015}}</ref> their partly transparent wings are held over the body and pressed close to the substrate<!--, concealing the insect's shadow and further destroying its outline-->. Some cicada species [[thanatosis|play dead]] when threatened.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.masscic.org/cicadas101/adult-cicada-defenses |title=Adult Cicada Defenses |work=Massachusetts Cicadas |access-date=5 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://bugguide.net/node/view/671603 |title=Subspecies Neotibicen lyricen lyricen – Lyric Cicada ("ssp. lyricen var. lyricen") |publisher=BugGuide.Net |access-date=5 September 2017}}</ref>
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The periodical cicadas (''Magicicada'') make use of [[predator satiation]]: they emerge, all at once, at long intervals of 13 or 17 years; their juveniles are probably the longest-lived of all insect development stages.<ref name=WilliamsSimon/> Since the cicadas in any given area exceeds the number predators can eat, all available predators are sated, and the remaining cicadas can breed in peace.<ref name=WashPost/><ref name=WilliamsSimon/>
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[[File:Huechys sanguinea 03.JPG|thumb|The day-flying cicada ''[[Huechys sanguinea]]'' warns off predators with its [[aposematic]] red and black coloration. (Southeast Asia)]]

Some cicadas such as ''[[Hemisciera maculipennis]]'' display bright [[deimatic]] flash coloration on their hind wings when threatened; the sudden contrast helps to startle predators, giving the cicadas time to escape.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cott |first1=Hugh B. |title=Adaptive Coloration in Animals |url=https://archive.org/details/adaptivecolorati00cott |date=1940 |publisher=Methuen |pages=[https://archive.org/details/adaptivecolorati00cott/page/375 375–376]}}</ref> Most cicadas are [[Diurnality|diurnal]] and rely on camouflage when at rest, but some species use [[aposematism]]-related [[Batesian mimicry]], wearing the bright colors that warn of toxicity in other animals; the Malaysian ''[[Huechys sanguinea]]'' has conspicuous red and black warning coloration, is diurnal, and boldly flies about in full view of possible predators.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cott |first1=Hugh B. |title=Adaptive Coloration in Animals |url=https://archive.org/details/adaptivecolorati00cott |year=1940 |publisher=Methuen |page=[https://archive.org/details/adaptivecolorati00cott/page/203 203]}}</ref>

Predators such as the [[Sarcophagidae|sarcophagid]] fly ''[[Emblemasoma]]'' hunt cicadas by sound, being attracted to their songs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zuk |first1=Marlene |last2=Kolluru |first2=Gita R. |title=Exploitation of Sexual Signals by Predators and Parasitoids |journal=Quarterly Review of Biology |date=December 1998 |volume=73 |issue=4 |pages=415–438 |url=http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1118&context=bio_fac |doi=10.1086/420412|s2cid=19287833 }}</ref> Singing males soften their song so that the attention of the listener gets distracted to neighbouring louder singers, or cease singing altogether as a predator approaches. A loud cicada song, especially in chorus, has been asserted to repel predators, but observations of predator responses refute the claim.<ref name=WilliamsSimon>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Kathy S. |last2=Simon |first2=Chris |title=The Ecology, Behavior, And Evolution of Periodical Cicadas |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |date=1995 |volume=40 |pages=269–295 |url=http://hydrodictyon.eeb.uconn.edu/projects/cicada/resources/reprints/Williams%26Simon_1995.pdf |doi=10.1146/annurev.ento.40.1.269 |access-date=24 August 2015 |archive-date=29 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100729063931/http://hydrodictyon.eeb.uconn.edu/projects/cicada/resources/reprints/Williams%26Simon_1995.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>