Editing Cement (section)

===19th century===
Apparently unaware of [[John Smeaton|Smeaton's]] work, the same principle was identified by Frenchman [[Louis Vicat]] in the first decade of the nineteenth century. Vicat went on to devise a method of combining chalk and clay into an intimate mixture, and, burning this, produced an "artificial cement" in 1817<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalcement.com/faq/who-discovered-cement|title=Who Discovered Cement|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130204131106/http://www.nationalcement.com/faq/who-discovered-cement|archive-date=4 February 2013|df=dmy-all|date=12 September 2012}}</ref> considered the "principal forerunner"<ref name="Blezard"/> of Portland cement and "...Edgar Dobbs of [[Southwark]] patented a cement of this kind in 1811."<ref name="Blezard"/>

In Russia, [[Egor Cheliev]] created a new binder by mixing lime and clay. His results were published in 1822 in his book ''A Treatise on the Art to Prepare a Good Mortar'' published in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]]. A few years later in 1825, he published another book, which described various methods of making cement and concrete, and the benefits of cement in the construction of buildings and embankments.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Znachko-Iavorskii|author2=I. L.|title=Egor Gerasimovich Chelidze, izobretatelʹ tsementa|url=http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/008851841|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201232847/http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/008851841|archive-date=1 February 2014|publisher=Sabchota Sakartvelo|year=1969}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Lafarge History of Cement|url=http://cement-174.ru/stati/izobretenie.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202101113/http://cement-174.ru/stati/izobretenie.html|archive-date=2 February 2014}}</ref>

[[File:William Aspdin Radford cyclopedia Volume 1.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[William Aspdin]] is considered the inventor of "modern" [[Portland cement]].<ref name="William Aspdin">{{cite book|last1=Courland|first1=Robert|title=Concrete planet : the strange and fascinating story of the world's most common man-made material|date=2011|publisher=Prometheus Books|location=Amherst, N.Y.|isbn=978-1616144814|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781616144814|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781616144814/page/190 190]}}</ref>]]
[[Portland cement]], the most common type of cement in general use around the world as a basic ingredient of concrete, [[mortar (masonry)|mortar]], [[stucco]], and non-speciality [[grout]], was developed in England in the mid 19th century, and usually originates from [[limestone]]. [[James Frost (cement maker)|James Frost]] produced what he called "British cement" in a similar manner around the same time, but did not obtain a patent until 1822.<ref>Francis, A.J. (1977) ''The Cement Industry 1796–1914: A History'', David & Charles. {{ISBN|0-7153-7386-2}}, Ch. 5.</ref> In 1824, [[Joseph Aspdin]] patented a similar material, which he called ''Portland cement'', because the render made from it was in color similar to the prestigious [[Portland stone]] quarried on the [[Isle of Portland]], Dorset, England. However, Aspdins' cement was nothing like modern Portland cement but was a first step in its development, called a ''proto-Portland cement''.<ref name="Blezard"/> Joseph Aspdins' son [[William Aspdin]] had left his father's company and in his cement manufacturing apparently accidentally produced [[calcium silicate]]s in the 1840s, a middle step in the development of Portland cement. William Aspdin's innovation was counterintuitive for manufacturers of "artificial cements", because they required more lime in the mix (a problem for his father), a much higher kiln temperature (and therefore more fuel), and the resulting clinker was very hard and rapidly wore down the [[millstone]]s, which were the only available [[Grinding wheel|grinding technology]] of the time. Manufacturing costs were therefore considerably higher, but the product set reasonably slowly and developed strength quickly, thus opening up a market for use in concrete. The use of concrete in construction grew rapidly from 1850 onward, and was soon the dominant use for cements. Thus Portland cement began its predominant role. [[Isaac Charles Johnson]] further refined the production of ''meso-Portland cement'' (middle stage of development) and claimed he was the real father of Portland cement.<ref>Hahn, Thomas F. and Kemp, Emory Leland (1994). ''Cement mills along the Potomac River''. Morgantown, WV: West Virginia University Press. p. 16. {{ISBN|9781885907004}}</ref>

Setting time and "early strength" are important characteristics of cements. Hydraulic limes, "natural" cements, and "artificial" cements all rely on their [[belite]] (2 CaO · SiO<sub>2</sub>, abbreviated as C<sub>2</sub>S) content for [[Strength of materials|strength]] development. Belite develops strength slowly. Because they were burned at temperatures below {{convert|1250|C|F}}, they contained no [[alite]] (3 CaO · SiO<sub>2</sub>, abbreviated as C<sub>3</sub>S), which is responsible for early strength in modern cements. The first cement to consistently contain alite was made by William Aspdin in the early 1840s: This was what we call today "modern" Portland cement. Because of the air of mystery with which William Aspdin surrounded his product, others (''e.g.,'' Vicat and Johnson) have claimed precedence in this invention, but recent analysis<ref>{{cite book|author=Hewlett, Peter|title=Lea's Chemistry of Cement and Concrete|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=v1JVu4iifnMC|page=1}}|year=2003|publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann|isbn=978-0-08-053541-8|page=Ch. 1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151101041700/https://books.google.com/books?id=v1JVu4iifnMC|archive-date=1 November 2015}}</ref> of both his concrete and raw cement have shown that William Aspdin's product made at [[Northfleet]], Kent was a true alite-based cement. However, Aspdin's methods were "rule-of-thumb": Vicat is responsible for establishing the chemical basis of these cements, and Johnson established the importance of [[sintering]] the mix in the [[Cement kiln|kiln]].

In the US the first large-scale use of cement was [[Rosendale cement]], a natural cement mined from a massive deposit of [[Dolomite (rock)|dolomite]] discovered in the early 19th century near [[Rosendale, New York]]. Rosendale cement was extremely popular for the foundation of buildings (''e.g.'', [[Statue of Liberty]], [[United States Capitol|Capitol Building]], [[Brooklyn Bridge]]) and lining water pipes.<ref name="Natural Cement Comes Back">{{Cite web|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=VCcDAAAAMBAJ|page=118}}|title=Natural Cement Comes Back|work=Popular Science|date=October 1941|page=118|publisher=Bonnier Corporation|language=en}}</ref>
[[Sorel cement]], or magnesia-based cement, was patented in 1867 by the Frenchman [[Stanislas Sorel]].<ref name=sorel_1867>Stanislas Sorel (1867). "[https://archive.org/details/ComptesRendusAcademieDesSciences0065/page/n103 Sur un nouveau ciment magnésien]". ''Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences'', volume 65, pages 102–104.</ref> It was stronger than Portland cement but its poor water resistance (leaching) and corrosive properties ([[pitting corrosion]] due to the presence of leachable [[chloride]] anions and the low pH (8.5–9.5) of its pore water) limited its use as reinforced concrete for building construction.<ref name="WallingProvis2016">{{cite journal|last1=Walling|first1=Sam A.|last2=Provis|first2=John L.|title=Magnesia-based cements: A journey of 150 years, and cements for the future?|journal=Chemical Reviews|volume=116|issue=7|year=2016|pages=4170–4204|issn=0009-2665|doi=10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00463|pmid=27002788|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The next development in the manufacture of Portland cement was the introduction of the [[rotary kiln]]. It produced a [[clinker (cement)|clinker]] mixture that was both stronger, because more [[alite]] (C<sub>3</sub>S) is formed at the higher temperature it achieved (1450&nbsp;°C), and more homogeneous. Because raw material is constantly fed into a rotary kiln, it allowed a [[continuous production|continuous manufacturing process]] to replace lower capacity [[batch production]] processes.<ref name="Blezard"/>