Editing Catalan language (section)

=== Relationship with other Romance languages ===
Some include Catalan in Occitan, as the [[linguistic distance]] between this language and some Occitan dialects (such as the [[Gascon dialect]]) is similar to the distance among different Occitan dialects. Catalan was considered a dialect of Occitan until the end of the 19th century<ref>{{cite book |last1=Friend |first1=Julius W. |title=Stateless Nations: Western European Regional Nationalisms and the Old Nations |date=2012 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-36179-9 |page=80 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-SF4-ip95MoC&pg=PA80 |access-date=5 March 2016}}{{dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> and still today remains its closest relative.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Nathaniel B. |last2=Bergin |first2=Thomas Goddard |title=An Old Provençal Primer |publisher=Garland |place=New York |year=1984 |isbn=0-8240-9030-6 |page=9}}</ref>

Catalan shares many traits with the other neighboring [[Romance languages]] (Occitan, French, [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] as well as Spanish and Portuguese among others).{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} However, despite being spoken mostly on the [[Iberian Peninsula]], Catalan has marked differences with the [[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian Romance]] group ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]) in terms of [[pronunciation]], grammar, and especially vocabulary; it shows instead its closest affinity with languages native to France and northern Italy, particularly [[Occitan language|Occitan]]{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}} and to a lesser extent [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]] ([[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]], [[French language|French]], [[Gallo-Italian languages|Gallo-Italian]]).<ref name="Ross 2007">{{Cite book |last=Ross |first=Marc Howard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oe4popSDfW0C |title=Cultural Contestation in Ethnic Conflict |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=139 |isbn=978-1-139-46307-2}}</ref>{{sfn|Jud|1925}}{{sfn|Colón|1993|pp=33–35}}{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}}{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}}

According to [[Ethnologue]], the lexical similarity between Catalan and other Romance languages is: 87% with Italian; 85% with Portuguese and Spanish; 76% with [[Ladin language|Ladin]] and [[Romansh language|Romansh]]; 75% with Sardinian; and 73% with Romanian.<ref name="e25" />
<!--These 2 tables are related to the paragraph above, they come from the same source and should be treated as a whole. See talk page for more-->
{| class="wikitable"  style="margin:auto; text-align:center;"
|+ Lexical comparison of 24 words among Romance languages:<br />17 cognates with Gallo-Romance, 5 [[isogloss]]es with Iberian Romance, 3 isoglosses with Occitan, and 1 unique word.{{sfn|Jud|1925}}{{sfn|Colón|1993|pp=33–35}}
|-
! Gloss !! Catalan !! [[Occitan language|Occitan]] !! ([[Campidanese dialect|Campidanese]]) <br /> [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] !! [[Italian language|Italian]] !! [[French language|French]] !! [[Spanish language|Spanish]] !! [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] !! [[Romanian language|Romanian]]
<!--Don't add or remove any item of this table. Also, don't add any other language translation. Otherwise, the original point of the table would be lost-->
|-
| cousin || {{lang|ca|'''cosí'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''cosin'''}} || {{lang|src|fradili}} || {{lang|it|'''cugino'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''cousin'''}} || {{lang|es|primo}} || {{lang|pt|primo}}, {{lang|pt|coirmão}} || {{lang|ro|văr}}
|-
| brother || {{lang|ca|'''germà'''}} || {{lang|oc|fraire}} || {{lang|src|fradi}} || {{lang|it|fratello}} || {{lang|fr|frère}} || {{lang|es|'''hermano'''}} || {{lang|pt|'''irmão'''}} || {{lang|ro|frate}}
|-
| nephew || {{lang|ca|'''nebot'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''nebot'''}} || {{lang|src|'''nebodi'''}} || {{lang|it|'''nipote'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''neveu'''}} || {{lang|es|sobrino}} || {{lang|pt|sobrinho}} || {{lang|ro|'''nepot'''}}
|-
| summer || {{lang|ca|'''estiu'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''estiu'''}} || {{lang|src|'''istadi'''}} || {{lang|it|'''estate'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''été'''}} || {{lang|es|verano}}, {{lang|es|'''estío'''}}<ref name="estiagem">Portuguese and Spanish have {{lang|pt|estiagem}} and {{lang|es|estiaje}}, respectively, for drought, dry season or low water levels.</ref> || {{lang|pt|verão}}, {{lang|pt|'''estio'''}}<ref name="estiagem" /> || {{lang|ro|vară}}
|-
| evening || {{lang|ca|'''vespre'''}} || {{lang|oc|ser}}, {{lang|oc|'''vèspre'''}} || {{lang|src|seru}} || {{lang|it|sera}} || {{lang|fr|soir}} || {{lang|es|tarde}}, {{lang|es|noche}}<ref name="vespera">Portuguese and Spanish have {{lang|pt|véspera}} and {{lang|es|víspera}}, respectively, for eve, or the day before.</ref> || {{lang|pt|tarde}}, {{lang|pt|serão}}<ref name="vespera" /> || {{lang|ro|seară}}
|-
| morning || {{lang|ca|'''matí'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''matin'''}} || {{lang|src|mangianu}} || {{lang|it|'''mattina'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''matin'''}} || {{lang|es|mañana}} || {{lang|pt|manhã}}, {{lang|pt|'''matina'''}} || {{lang|ro|'''dimineață'''}}
|-
| frying pan || {{lang|ca|'''paella'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''padena'''}} || {{lang|src|'''paella'''}} || {{lang|it|'''padella'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''poêle'''}} || {{lang|es|sartén}} || {{lang|pt|frigideira}}, {{lang|pt|fritadeira}} || {{lang|ro|tigaie}}
|-
| bed || {{lang|ca|'''llit'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''lièch'''}} (or {{lang|oc|'''lèit'''}}) || {{lang|src|'''letu'''}} || {{lang|it|'''letto'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''lit'''}} || {{lang|es|cama}}, {{lang|es|'''lecho'''}} || {{lang|pt|cama}}, {{lang|pt|'''leito'''}} || {{lang|ro|pat}}
|-
| bird || {{lang|ca|'''ocell'''}}, {{lang|ca|'''au'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''aucèl'''}} || {{lang|src|pilloni}} || {{lang|it|'''uccello'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''oiseau'''}} || {{lang|es|'''ave'''}}, {{lang|es|pájaro}}|| {{lang|pt|'''ave'''}}, {{lang|pt|pássaro}}|| {{lang|ro|pasăre}}
|-
| dog || {{lang|ca|'''gos'''}}, {{lang|ca|'''ca'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''gos'''}}, {{lang|oc|'''canh'''}} || {{lang|src|'''cani'''}} || {{lang|it|'''cane'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''chien'''}} || {{lang|es|perro}}, {{lang|es|'''can'''}} || {{lang|pt|'''cão'''}}, {{lang|pt|cachorro}} || {{lang|ro|'''câine'''}}
|-
| plum || {{lang|ca|'''pruna'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''pruna'''}} || {{lang|src|'''pruna'''}} || {{lang|it|'''prugna'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''prune'''}} || {{lang|es|ciruela}} || {{lang|pt|ameixa}} || {{lang|ro|'''prună'''}}
|-
| butter || {{lang|ca|'''mantega'''}} || {{lang|oc|bodre}} || {{lang|src|burru}} <br /> (or {{lang|src|butiru}}) || {{lang|it|burro}} || {{lang|fr|beurre}} || {{lang|es|'''mantequilla'''}} <br /> (or {{lang|es|'''manteca'''}}) || {{lang|pt|'''manteiga'''}} || {{lang|ro|unt}}
|-
| piece || {{lang|ca|'''tros'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''tròç'''}}, {{lang|oc|petaç}} || {{lang|src|arrogu}} || {{lang|it|pezzo}} || {{lang|fr|morceau}}, {{lang|fr|pièce}} || {{lang|es|pedazo}}, {{lang|es|'''trozo'''}}<ref name="trozo">Spanish also has {{lang|es|trozo}}, and it is actually a borrowing from Catalan {{lang|ca|tros}}. Colón 1993, p 39. Portuguese has {{lang|es|troço}}, but aside from also being a loanword, it has a very different meaning: "thing", "gadget", "tool", "paraphernalia".</ref> || {{lang|pt|pedaço}}, {{lang|pt|bocado}} || {{lang|ro|bucată}}
|-
| gray || {{lang|ca|'''gris'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''gris'''}} || {{lang|src|canu}} || {{lang|it|'''grigio'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''gris'''}} || {{lang|es|'''gris'''}}, {{lang|es|pardo}}<ref>Modern Spanish also has {{lang|es|gris}}, but it is a modern borrowing from Occitan. The original word was {{lang|es|pardo}}, which stands for "reddish, yellow-orange, medium-dark and of moderate to weak saturation. It also can mean ochre, pale ochre, dark ohre, brownish, tan, greyish, grey, desaturated, dirty, dark, or opaque." {{cite book |last1=Gallego |first1=Rosa |last2=Sanz |first2=Juan Carlos |year=2001 |title=Diccionario Akal del color |publisher=Akal |language=es |isbn=978-84-460-1083-8}}</ref> || {{lang|pt|cinzento}}, {{lang|pt|'''gris'''}} || {{lang|ro|'''gri'''}},<ref>A 20th century introduction from French.</ref> {{lang|ro|sur}}, {{lang|ro|cenușiu}}
|-
| hot || {{lang|ca|'''calent'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''caud'''}} || {{lang|src|'''callenti'''}} || '''{{lang|it|caldo}}''' || '''{{lang|fr|chaud}}''' || {{lang|es|'''caliente'''}} || {{lang|pt|'''quente'''}} || {{lang|ro|'''cald'''}}
|-
| too much || {{lang|ca|'''massa'''}} || {{lang|oc|tròp}} || {{lang|src|tropu}} || {{lang|it|troppo}} || {{lang|fr|trop}} || {{lang|es|de'''mas'''iado}} || {{lang|pt|de'''mais''', de'''mas'''iado}} || {{lang|ro|prea}}
|-
| to want || {{lang|ca|'''voler'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''vòler'''}} || {{lang|src|'''bolli(ri)'''}} || {{lang|it|'''volere'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''vouloir'''}} || {{lang|es|querer}} || {{lang|pt|querer}} || {{lang|ro|'''a vrea'''}}
|-
| to take || {{lang|ca|'''prendre'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''prendre'''}} <br /> (or {{lang|oc|'''prene'''}}) || {{lang|src|pigai}} || {{lang|it|'''prendere'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''prendre'''}} || {{lang|es|tomar}}, {{lang|es|'''prender'''}} || {{lang|pt|apanhar}}, {{lang|pt|levar}} || {{lang|ro|a lua}}
|-
| to pray || {{lang|ca|'''pregar'''}}, {{lang|ca|'''resar'''}}, {{lang|ca|'''orar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''pregar'''}} || {{lang|src|'''pregai'''}} || {{lang|it|'''pregare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''prier'''}} || {{lang|es|'''orar'''}}, {{lang|es|'''rezar'''}} || {{lang|pt|'''orar'''}}, {{lang|pt|'''rezar'''}}, {{lang|pt|'''pregar'''}} || {{lang|ro|a se ruga}}
|-
| to ask || {{lang|ca|'''demanar'''}} / {{lang|ca|'''preguntar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''demandar'''}} || {{lang|src|'''dimandai'''}}, {{lang|src|'''preguntai'''}} || {{lang|it|'''domandare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''demander'''}} || {{lang|es|pedir}}, {{lang|es|'''preguntar'''}} || {{lang|pt|pedir}}, {{lang|pt|'''perguntar'''}} || {{lang|ro|a cere}}, {{lang|ro|a întreba}}
|-
| to search || {{lang|ca|'''cercar'''}} / {{lang|ca|'''buscar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''cercar'''}} || {{lang|src|'''circai'''}} || {{lang|it|'''cercare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''chercher'''}} || {{lang|es|'''buscar'''}} || {{lang|pt|procurar}}, {{lang|pt|'''buscar'''}} || {{lang|ro|a căuta}}
|-
| to arrive || {{lang|ca|'''arribar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''arribar'''}} || {{lang|src|'''arribai'''}} || {{lang|it|'''arrivare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''arriver'''}} || {{lang|es|llegar}}, {{lang|es|'''arribar'''}} || {{lang|pt|chegar}} || {{lang|ro|a ajunge}}
|-
| to speak || {{lang|ca|'''parlar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''parlar'''}} || {{lang|src|chistionnai}}, {{lang|src|fueddai}} || {{lang|it|'''parlare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''parler'''}} || {{lang|es|hablar}}, {{lang|es|'''parlar'''}} || {{lang|pt|falar}}, {{lang|pt|'''parlar'''}} || {{lang|ro|a vorbi}}
|-
| to eat || {{lang|ca|'''menjar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''manjar'''}} || {{lang|src|pappai}} || {{lang|it|'''mangiare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''manger'''}} || {{lang|es|comer}} <br /> ({{lang|es-AR|'''manyar'''}} in [[lunfardo]]; <br /> {{lang|es|papear}} in slang) || {{lang|pt|comer}}, {{lang|pt|'''manjar'''}} <br /> ({{lang|pt|papar}} in slang) || {{lang|ro|'''a mânca'''}}
|}

During much of its history, and especially during the [[Francoist Spain|Francoist dictatorship]] (1939–1975), the Catalan language was ridiculed as a mere dialect of [[Spanish language|Spanish]].{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}} This view, based on political and ideological considerations, has no linguistic validity.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}} Spanish and Catalan have important differences in their sound systems, lexicon, and grammatical features, placing the language in features closer to [[Occitan language|Occitan]] (and [[French language|French]]).{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}}

There is evidence that, at least from the 2nd century AD, the vocabulary and phonology of Roman [[Tarraconensis]] was different from the rest of Roman Hispania.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} Differentiation arose generally because Spanish, [[Asturian language|Asturian]], and Galician-Portuguese share certain peripheral archaisms (Spanish {{lang|es|hervir}}, Asturian and Portuguese {{lang|pt|ferver}} vs. Catalan {{lang|ca|bullir}}, Occitan {{lang|oc|bolir}} "to boil") and innovatory regionalisms (Spanish {{lang|es|novillo}}, Asturian {{lang|ast|nuviellu}} vs. Catalan {{lang|ca|torell}}, Occitan {{lang|oc|taurèl}} "bullock"), while Catalan has a shared history with the Western Romance innovative core, especially Occitan.{{sfn|Colón|1993|p=55}}{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}

{| class="wikitable"  style="float:right; text-align:center;"
|+ Catalan and Spanish cognates with different meanings{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}}
! [[Latin]] !! Catalan !! [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
|-
| {{Wikt-lang|la|accostare}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|acostar}} "to bring closer" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|acostar}}'' "to put to bed"
|-
| {{Wikt-lang|la|levare}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|llevar}} "to remove;<br />wake up" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|llevar}}'' "to take"
|-
| {{Wikt-lang|la|trahere}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|traure}} "to remove" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|traer}}'' "to bring"
|-
| {{Wikt-lang|la|circare}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|cercar}} "to search" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|cercar}}'' "to fence"
|-
| {{Wikt-lang|la|collocare}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|colgar}}  "to bury" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|colgar}}'' "to hang"
|-
| {{Wikt-lang|la|mulier}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|muller}} "wife" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|mujer}}'' "woman or wife"
|}

Like all Romance languages, Catalan has a handful of native words which are unique to it, or rare elsewhere. These include:
* verbs: {{sm|cōnfīgere}} 'to fasten; transfix' > {{lang|ca|confegir}} 'to compose, write up', {{sm|congemināre}} > {{lang|ca|conjuminar}} 'to combine, conjugate', {{sm|de-ex-somnitare}} > {{lang|ca|deixondar/-ir}} 'to wake; awaken', {{sm|dēnsāre}} 'to thicken; crowd together' > {{lang|ca|desar}} 'to save, keep', {{sm|īgnōrāre}} > {{lang|ca|enyorar}} 'to miss, yearn, pine for', {{sm|indāgāre}} 'to investigate, track' > Old Catalan ''enagar'' 'to incite, induce', {{sm|odiāre}} > Old Catalan ''ujar'' 'to exhaust, fatigue', {{sm|pācificāre}} > {{lang|ca|apaivagar}} 'to appease, mollify', {{sm|repudiāre}} > {{lang|ca|rebutjar}} 'to reject, refuse';
* nouns: {{sm|brīsa}} > {{lang|ca|brisa}} 'pomace', {{sm|buda}} > {{lang|ca|boga}} 'reedmace', {{sm|catarrhu}} > {{lang|ca|cadarn}} 'catarrh', {{sm|congesta}} > {{lang|ca|congesta}} 'snowdrift', {{sm|dēlīrium}} > {{lang|ca|deler}} 'ardor, passion', {{sm|fretu}} > {{lang|ca|freu}} 'brake', {{sm|lābem}} > {{lang|ca|(a)llau}} 'avalanche', {{sm|ōra}} > {{lang|ca|vora}} 'edge, border', {{sm|pistrīce}} 'sawfish' > ''pestriu'' > {{lang|ca|pestiu}} 'thresher shark, smooth hound; ray', {{sm|prūna}} 'live coal' > {{lang|ca|espurna}} 'spark', {{sm|tardātiōnem}} > ''tardaó'' > {{lang|ca|tardor}} 'autumn'.{{sfn|Bruguera|2008|p=3046}}{{Clarify|date=February 2023|reason=Significance of all caps vs. italic is unclear }}

The [[Gothic language|Gothic]] superstrate produced different outcomes in Spanish and Catalan. For example, Catalan {{wikt-lang|ca|fang}} "mud" and {{wikt-lang|ca|rostir}} "to roast", of Germanic origin, contrast with Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|lodo}} and {{wikt-lang|es|asar}}, of Latin origin; whereas Catalan {{wikt-lang|ca|filosa}} "spinning wheel" and {{wikt-lang|ca|templa}} "temple", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|rueca}} and {{wikt-lang|es|sien}}, of Germanic origin.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}

The same happens with [[Arabic language|Arabic]] loanwords. Thus, Catalan {{lang|ca|alfàbia}} "large earthenware jar" and {{wikt-lang|ca|rajola}} "tile", of Arabic origin, contrast with Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|tinaja}} and {{wikt-lang|es|teja}}, of Latin origin; whereas Catalan {{wikt-lang|ca|oli}} "oil" and {{wikt-lang|ca|oliva}} "olive", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|aceite}} and {{wikt-lang|es|aceituna}}.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} However, the Arabic element is generally much more prevalent in Spanish.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}

Situated between two large linguistic blocks (Iberian Romance and Gallo-Romance), Catalan has many unique lexical choices, such as {{wikt-lang|ca|enyorar}} "to miss somebody", {{wikt-lang|ca|apaivagar}} "to calm somebody down", and {{wikt-lang|ca|rebutjar}} "reject".{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}