Editing Cannon (section)

=== Early modern ===
[[Image:16th Century Artillerie.jpg|thumb|right|Various 16th-century artillery pieces, including [[culverin]], [[Falconet (cannon)|falconet]] and [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]]]

By the 16th century, cannons were made in a great variety of lengths and bore diameters, but the general rule was that the longer the barrel, the longer the range. Some cannons made during this time had barrels exceeding {{convert|10|ft|m|abbr=on}} in length, and could weigh up to {{convert|20000|lb|kg}}. Consequently, large amounts of gunpowder were needed to allow them to fire stone balls several hundred yards.<ref>{{cite book|last=Krebs|first=Robert E.|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2004|title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance|isbn=978-0-313-32433-8|page=270|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MTXdplfiz-cC|access-date=25 September 2017|archive-date=29 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529131821/http://books.google.com/books?id=MTXdplfiz-cC|url-status=live}}</ref> By mid-century, European monarchs began to classify cannons to reduce the confusion. [[Henry II of France]] opted for six sizes of cannon,<ref>The six sizes are, in order from largest to smallest: the cannon, great culverin, bastard culverin, "legitimate" culverin, falcon, and falconet.</ref> but others settled for more; the Spanish used twelve sizes, and the English sixteen. They are, from largest to smallest: the cannon royal, cannon, cannon serpentine, bastard cannon, demicannon, pedrero, culverin, basilisk, demiculverin, bastard culverin, saker, minion, falcon, falconet, serpentine, and rabinet.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/source/is3/is3c.htm|title=NPS Interpretive Series: Artillery Through the Ages|website=National Park Service|access-date=5 October 2021|archive-date=5 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005211228/https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/source/is3/is3c.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Tunis">{{cite book|last=Tunis|first=Edwin|title=Weapons: A Pictorial History|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|location=[[Baltimore]], Maryland|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8018-6229-8|page=89|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sCnyIzibmywC|access-date=25 September 2017|archive-date=20 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020080021/https://books.google.com/books?id=sCnyIzibmywC|url-status=live}}</ref> Better powder had been developed by this time as well. Instead of the finely ground powder used by the first bombards, powder was replaced by a "corned" variety of coarse grains. This coarse powder had pockets of air between grains, allowing fire to travel through and ignite the entire charge quickly and uniformly.<ref>Tunis, p. 88.</ref>

The end of the Middle Ages saw the construction of larger, more powerful cannon, as well as their spread throughout the world. As they were not effective at breaching the newer fortifications resulting from the development of cannon, [[siege engine]]s—such as [[siege tower]]s and [[trebuchet]]s—became less widely used. However, wooden "battery-towers" took on a similar role as siege towers in the gunpowder age—such as that used at [[Siege of Kazan]] in 1552, which could hold ten large-calibre cannon, in addition to 50 lighter pieces.<ref name="Kazan">{{cite book|last=Nossov|first=Konstantin|pages=53–55|title=Russian Fortresses, 1480–1682|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|year=2006|isbn=978-1-84176-916-5}}</ref> Another notable effect of cannon on warfare during this period was the change in conventional fortifications. [[Niccolò Machiavelli]] wrote, "There is no wall, whatever its thickness that artillery will not destroy in only a few days."<ref name="The Art of War (Machiavelli)"/> Although castles were not immediately made obsolete by cannon, their use and importance on the battlefield rapidly declined.<ref name="Castles">{{cite book|last=Wilkinson|first=Philip|title=Castles|publisher=[[Dorling Kindersley]]|date=1997|isbn=978-0-7894-2047-3|page=81}}</ref> Instead of majestic [[tower]]s and [[merlon]]s, the walls of new fortresses were thick, angled, and sloped, while towers became low and stout; increasing use was also made of earth and brick in [[Breastwork (fortification)|breastworks]] and [[redoubt]]s. These new defences became known as [[bastion fort]]s, after their characteristic shape which attempted to force any advance towards it directly into the firing line of the guns.<ref name="Castles"/> A few of these featured [[Artillery battery|cannon batteries]], such as the [[House of Tudor]]'s [[Device Forts]] in England.<ref name="Castles"/> Bastion forts soon replaced castles in Europe and, eventually, those in the Americas as well.<ref name="SpanishMain">{{cite book|last=Chartrand|first=René|title=Spanish Main: 1492–1800|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-84603-005-5|year=2006|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cvcBWivXlekC}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

By the end of the 15th century, several technological advancements made cannons more mobile. Wheeled gun carriages and [[trunnion]]s became common, and the invention of the [[Limbers and caissons|limber]] further facilitated transportation.<ref name="Manucy, p. 5">Manucy, p. 5.</ref> As a result, field artillery became more viable and began to see more widespread use, often alongside the larger cannons intended for sieges.<ref name="Manucy, p. 5"/><ref name="Sadler">{{cite book |title=Flodden 1513: Scotland's Greatest Defeat |last=Sadler |first=John |isbn=978-1-84176-959-2 |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |year=2006 |pages=22–23 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXX1SrxKTg0C }}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Better gunpowder, cast-iron projectiles (replacing stone), and the standardisation of calibres meant that even relatively light cannons could be deadly.<ref name="Manucy, p. 5"/> In ''[[The Art of War (Machiavelli)|The Art of War]]'', Niccolò Machiavelli observed that "It is true that the [[arquebus]]es and the small artillery do much more harm than the heavy artillery."<ref name="The Art of War (Machiavelli)">{{cite book|first=Niccolò|last=Machiavelli|title=The Art of War|isbn=978-0-226-50046-1|page=74|year=2005|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago}}</ref> This was the case at the [[Battle of Flodden]], in 1513: the English [[field gun]]s outfired the Scottish siege artillery, firing two or three times as many rounds.<ref>Sadler, p. 60.</ref> Despite the increased maneuverability, however, cannon were still the slowest component of the army: a heavy [[English cannon]] required 23 horses to transport, while a culverin needed nine. Even with this many animals pulling, they still moved at a walking pace. Due to their relatively slow speed, lack of organisation, and undeveloped tactics, the combination of [[pike and shot]] still dominated the battlefields of Europe.<ref>Manucy, p. 6.</ref>

Innovations continued, notably the German invention of the [[Mortar (weapon)|mortar]], a thick-walled, short-barrelled gun that blasted shot upward at a steep angle. Mortars were useful for sieges, as they could hit targets behind walls or other defences.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9053839/mortar|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |title=Mortar|access-date=13 March 2008|archive-date=26 December 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071226081438/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9053839/mortar|url-status=live}}</ref> This cannon found more use with the Dutch, who learnt to shoot bombs filled with powder from them. Setting the bomb fuse was a problem. "Single firing" was first used to ignite the fuse, where the bomb was placed with the fuse down against the cannon's propellant. This often resulted in the fuse being blown into the bomb, causing it to blow up as it left the mortar. Because of this, "double firing" was tried where the gunner lit the fuse and then the touch hole. This required considerable skill and timing, and was especially dangerous if the gun misfired, leaving a lighted bomb in the barrel. Not until 1650 was it accidentally discovered that double-lighting was superfluous as the heat of firing would light the fuse.<ref>Tunis, p. 90.</ref>

[[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden]] emphasised the use of light cannon and mobility in his army, and created new formations and tactics that revolutionised artillery. He discontinued using all 12 pounder—or heavier—cannon as field artillery, preferring, instead, to use cannons that could be handled by only a few men. One obsolete type of gun, the "[[Leather cannon|leatheren]]", was replaced by 4 pounder and 9 pounder demi-culverins. These could be operated by three men, and pulled by only two horses. Gustavus Adolphus's army was also the first to use a cartridge that contained both powder and shot which sped up reloading, increasing the rate of fire.<ref>Manucy, pp. 7–8.</ref> Finally, against infantry he pioneered the use of [[canister shot]]—essentially a tin can filled with musket balls.<ref>Tunis, p. 96.</ref> Until then there was no more than one cannon for every thousand infantrymen on the battlefield but Gustavus Adolphus increased the number of cannons sixfold. Each regiment was assigned two pieces, though he often arranged them into batteries instead of distributing them piecemeal. He used these batteries to break his opponent's infantry line, while his cavalry would [[flanking maneuver|outflank]] their heavy guns.<ref>Manucy, p. 8.</ref>

At the [[Battle of Breitenfeld (1631)|Battle of Breitenfeld]], in 1631, Adolphus proved the effectiveness of the changes made to his army, by defeating [[Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly]]. Although severely outnumbered, the Swedes were able to fire between three and five times as many volleys of artillery, and their infantry's [[line (formation)|linear]] formations helped ensure they did not lose any ground. Battered by cannon fire, and low on morale, Tilly's men broke ranks and fled.<ref>{{cite book|first=Archer|last=Jones|title=The Art of War in the Western World|location=New York City|publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]|year=2001|isbn=978-0-252-06966-6|page=235|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z2FRzcz2W0oC|access-date=21 September 2020|archive-date=3 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201103163623/https://books.google.com/books?id=z2FRzcz2W0oC|url-status=live}}</ref>

In England, cannons were being used to besiege various fortified buildings during the [[English Civil War]]. [[Nathaniel Nye]] is recorded as testing a [[Birmingham]] cannon in 1643 and experimenting with a [[Saker (cannon)|saker]] in 1645.<ref name="Porter 2008">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Porter|2008}}</ref> From 1645 he was the master gunner to the [[Roundhead|Parliamentarian]] garrison at [[Evesham]] and in 1646 he successfully directed the artillery at the [[Siege of Worcester (1646)|Siege of Worcester]], detailing his experiences and in his 1647 book ''The Art of Gunnery''.<ref name="Porter 2008"/> Believing that war was as much a science as an art,<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Donagan|2008|loc=fig 8}}</ref> his explanations focused on [[triangulation]], [[arithmetic]], theoretical mathematics,<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Donagan|2008|p=84}}</ref> and [[cartography]]<ref name="Porter 2008"/> as well as practical considerations such as the ideal specification for gunpowder or [[slow match]]es.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Donagan|2008|p=85}}</ref> His book acknowledged mathematicians such as [[Robert Recorde]] and [[Marcus Jordanus]] as well as earlier military writers on artillery such as [[Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia]] and Thomas (or Francis<ref name="Hodgkin">{{cite book|last=Hodgkin|first=John|title=Rarioria |volume=III: 'Books on Fireworks'|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pAQDAAAAYAAJ|year=1902|page=15|publisher=Sampson Low, Marston & Company, Limited|access-date=21 September 2020|archive-date=20 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020080048/https://books.google.com/books?id=pAQDAAAAYAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>) Malthus (author of ''A Treatise on Artificial Fire-Works''<ref name="Malthus">{{cite book|last=Malthus|title=A Treatise on Artificial Fire-Works|url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=eebo;idno=A06780.0001.001|year=1629|publisher=W. Jones for Richard Hawkins|access-date=13 December 2016|archive-date=21 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221213953/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=eebo;idno=A06780.0001.001|url-status=live}}</ref>).<ref name="Porter 2008"/>

Around this time also came the idea of aiming the cannon to hit a target. Gunners controlled the range of their cannons by measuring the angle of elevation, using a "gunner's quadrant". Cannons did not have [[Sight (device)|sights]]; therefore, even with measuring tools, aiming was still largely guesswork.<ref>Tunis, p. 97.</ref>

In the latter half of the 17th century, the French engineer [[Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban]] introduced a more systematic and scientific approach to attacking gunpowder fortresses, in a time when many field commanders "were notorious dunces in siegecraft".<ref name="Griffith">{{cite book|last=Griffith|first=Paddy|title=The Vauban Fortifications of France|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eH1NtNGWQZ8C|year=2006|page=5|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-84176-875-5}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Careful [[sapping]] forward, supported by [[Enfilade and defilade|enfilading]] [[ricochet]]s, was a key feature of this system, and it even allowed Vauban to calculate the length of time a siege would take.<ref name="Griffith"/> He was also a prolific builder of bastion forts, and did much to popularize the idea of "depth in defence" in the face of cannon.<ref>Griffith, p. 29</ref> These principles were followed into the mid-19th century, when changes in armaments necessitated greater depth defence than Vauban had provided for. It was only in the years prior to [[World War I]] that new works began to break radically away from his designs.<ref>Griffith, pp. 56–57.</ref>

<gallery>
Image:TheTsarCannonJuly2004.jpg | The [[Tsar Cannon]], the largest [[howitzer]] ever made, cast by [[Andrey Chokhov]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Guinness Rekordbok|year=1996|isbn=978-91-37-10723-3|page=204|language=sv|author=översättning och bearbetning: Folke Günther&nbsp;... |publisher=Forum|location=Stockholm}}</ref>
Image:Youghal Battery.JPG | Remains of a post-medieval [[artillery battery|cannon battery]], mounted on a medieval [[Defensive wall|town wall]], although without carriages.
File:Fotothek df tg 0000132 Ballistik ^ Quadrant ^ Kanone.jpg | Contemporary illustration on how a cannon could be used with the aid of [[Quadrant (instrument)|quadrants]] for improved precision.
File:Sixteenth Century Cannon2.jpg | The use of [[gabion]]s with cannon was an important part in the attack and defence of fortifications.
Image:Fortbourtange.jpg | [[Fort Bourtange]], a [[bastion fort]], was built with angles and sloped walls specifically to defend against cannon.
</gallery>