Editing Brooklyn Bridge (section)

===Construction===

==== Caissons ====
[[File:AmCyc Caisson - Caisson of East River Bridge.jpg|alt=Woodcut/drawing illustrating caisson used in the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge|left|thumb|Diagram of the caisson]]
Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge began on January 2, 1870.<ref name="sun18910611" /> The first work entailed the construction of two caissons, upon which the suspension towers would be built.<ref name="structure mag" /><ref name="NRHI Nomination Form p. 2" /> The Brooklyn side's caisson was built at the Webb & Bell shipyard in [[Greenpoint, Brooklyn]], and was launched into the river on March 19, 1870.<ref name="structure mag" /><ref name="NRHI Nomination Form p. 2" /> Compressed air was pumped into the caisson, and workers entered the space to dig the sediment until it sank to the bedrock. As one sixteen-year-old from Ireland, [[Frank Harris]], described the fearful experience:<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last1=Roark|first1=James L.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1096495503|title=The American Promise: A History of the United States|last2=Johnson|first2=Michael P.|last3=Furstenburg|first3=Francois|last4=Cline Cohen|first4=Patricia|last5=Hartmann|first5=Susan M.|last6=Stage|first6=Sarah|last7=Igo|first7=Sarah E.|publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's|year=2020|isbn=978-1319208929|edition=Value Edition, 8th|volume=Combined Volume|location=Boston, MA|at=Kindle Locations 14108–14114|chapter=Chapter 19 The City and Its Workers: 1870–1900|type=Kindle|oclc=1096495503}}</ref><blockquote>The six of us were working naked to the waist in the small iron chamber with the temperature of about 80 degrees Fahrenheit: In five minutes the sweat was pouring from us, and all the while we were standing in icy water that was only kept from rising by the terrific pressure. No wonder the headaches were blinding.<ref name=":02" /> </blockquote>Once the caisson had reached the desired depth, it was to be filled in with vertical brick [[Pier (architecture)|piers]] and concrete.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/pneumatictowerf00roebgoog|title=Pneumatic Tower Foundations of the East River Suspension Bridge|last=Roebling|first=Washington|publisher=Averell & Peckett|year=1873|pages=[https://archive.org/details/pneumatictowerf00roebgoog/page/n52 46]}}</ref><ref name="McCullough p. 196" /> However, due to the unexpectedly high concentration of large boulders atop the riverbed, the Brooklyn caisson took several months to sink <!--at the desired rate---> to the desired depth.<ref name="McCullough p. 196">{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|p=196}}</ref><ref name="NRHI Nomination Form p. 2" /> Furthermore, in December 1870, its timber roof caught fire, delaying construction further.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1870/12/03/archives/the-caisson-of-the-east-river-bridge-on-firethe-works-damaged-to.html|title=The Caisson of the East River Bridge on Fire—The Works Damaged to the Extent of $20,000|date=December 3, 1870|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 18, 2019|archive-date=March 10, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310081535/https://www.nytimes.com/1870/12/03/archives/the-caisson-of-the-east-river-bridge-on-firethe-works-damaged-to.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/32999854/|title=Fire Under Water|last=Copage|first=Eric V|date=December 3, 1870|work=New York Herald|access-date=June 18, 2019|page=14|via=newspapers.com|archive-date=January 25, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125003525/https://www.newspapers.com/article/new-york-herald-fire-under-water/32999854/|url-status=live}}</ref> The "Great Blowout", as the fire was called, delayed construction for several months, since the holes in the caisson had to be repaired.<ref name="McCullough pp. 242-245">{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|pp=242–245}}</ref> On March 6, 1871, the repairs were finished, and the caisson had reached its final depth of {{Convert|44.5|ft|m|abbr=}}; it was filled with concrete five days later.<ref name="McCullough pp. 242-245" /><ref name="NRHI Nomination Form p. 2" /> Overall, about 264 individuals were estimated to have worked in the caisson every day, but because of high worker [[Turnover (employment)|turnover]], the final total was thought to be about 2,500 men in total.<ref>{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|pp=202–203}}</ref> In spite of this, only a few workers were paralyzed. At its final depth, the caisson's air pressure was {{Convert|21|psi||abbr=}}.<ref name="Talbot p. 3">{{harvnb|ps=.|Talbot|2011|p=3}}</ref>

The Manhattan side's caisson was the next structure to be built. To ensure that it would not catch fire like its counterpart had, the Manhattan caisson was lined with fireproof plate iron.<ref name="nydh18710418" /> It was launched from Webb & Bell's shipyard on May 11, 1871,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/33000245/|title=Brooklyn Bridge; Launch of the Colossal Caisson for the New York Shore Tower|date=May 9, 1871|work=New York Daily Herald|access-date=June 18, 2019|page=5|via=newspapers.com|archive-date=January 25, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125003526/https://www.newspapers.com/article/new-york-daily-herald-brooklyn-bridge-l/33000245/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NRHI Nomination Form p. 5" /> and maneuvered into place that September.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1871/09/12/archives/the-east-river-bridge-the-caisson-on-the-newyork-side-successfully.html|title=The East River Bridge; The Caisson on the New-York Side Successfully Moved to Its Proper Position. Diplomatic Changes|date=September 12, 1871|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 18, 2019|archive-date=August 9, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809205524/https://www.nytimes.com/1871/09/12/archives/the-east-river-bridge-the-caisson-on-the-newyork-side-successfully.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="structure mag" /> Due to the extreme underwater air pressure inside the much deeper Manhattan caisson, many workers became sick with "the bends"—[[decompression sickness]]—during this work,<ref name=":02" /> despite the incorporation of airlocks (which were believed to help with decompression sickness at the time).<ref name="Hudson">{{cite web|title=Hudson River Tunnel|url=https://www.engineering-timelines.com/scripts/engineeringItem.asp?id=1348|website=Engineering Timelines|access-date=December 4, 2016|archive-date=December 20, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220043250/http://www.engineering-timelines.com/scripts/engineeringItem.asp?id=1348|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1872/06/24/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-its-progressthe-newyork-piereffects-of-the.html|title=The Brooklyn Bridge; Its Progress—The New-York Pier-Effects Of the Compressed Air on the Workmen|date=June 24, 1872|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 19, 2019|archive-date=June 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619144422/https://www.nytimes.com/1872/06/24/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-its-progressthe-newyork-piereffects-of-the.html|url-status=live}}</ref> This condition was unknown at the time and was first called "caisson disease" by the project physician, Andrew Smith.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/physiologicalpa00smitgoog|title=The Physiological, Pathological and Therapeutical Effects of Compressed Air|last=Smith|first=Andrew Heermance|publisher=George S. Davis|year=1886|access-date=April 17, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|last=Acott|first=Chris|year=1999|title=A Brief History of Diving and Decompression Illness.|url=https://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/6004|magazine=[[South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal]]|volume=29|issue=2|issn=0813-1988|oclc=16986801|access-date=April 17, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110905152645/https://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/6004|archive-date=September 5, 2011|url-status=usurped}}</ref> Between January 25 and May 31, 1872, Smith treated 110 cases of decompression sickness, while three workers died from the disease.<ref name="NRHI Nomination Form p. 5" /> When iron probes underneath the Manhattan caisson found the [[bedrock]] to be even deeper than expected, Washington Roebling halted construction due to the increased risk of decompression sickness.<ref name="NRHI Nomination Form p. 5" /><ref>{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|p=294}}</ref> After the Manhattan caisson reached a depth of {{Convert|78.5|ft|m|abbr=}} with an air pressure of {{Convert|35|psi||abbr=|lk=out}},<ref name="Talbot p. 3" /> Washington deemed the sandy subsoil overlying the bedrock {{convert|30|ft|m}} beneath to be sufficiently firm, and subsequently infilled the caisson with concrete in July 1872.<ref name="NRHI Nomination Form p. 5" /><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/33024302/|title=The Brooklyn Bridge; The Caisson Filled In|date=July 17, 1872|work=Brooklyn Union|access-date=June 18, 2019|page=3|via=newspapers.com|archive-date=January 25, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125003554/https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-brooklyn-union-the-brooklyn-bridge/33024302/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Washington Roebling himself suffered a paralyzing injury as a result of caisson disease shortly after ground was broken for the Brooklyn tower foundation.<ref name="nyt19291229" /><ref>{{cite magazine |author=Butler |first=WP |title=Caisson Disease During the Construction of the Eads and Brooklyn Bridges: A Review |magazine=[[Undersea Hyperb Med]] |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=445–59 |year=2004 |pmid=15686275 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/4028 |access-date=June 19, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110822120254/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/4028 |archive-date=August 22, 2011 |url-status=usurped}}</ref> His debilitating condition left him unable to supervise the construction in person, so he designed the caissons and other equipment from his apartment, directing "the completion of the bridge through a telescope from his bedroom."<ref name=":02" /> His wife, [[Emily Warren Roebling]], not only provided written communications between her husband and the engineers on site,<ref name="McCullough pp. 297-298">{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|pp=297–298}}</ref> but also understood [[mathematics]], calculations of [[catenary]] curves, strengths of materials, bridge specifications, and the intricacies of cable construction. She spent the next 11 years helping supervise the bridge's construction,<ref name="Talbot p. 3" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asce.org/templates/person-bio-detail.aspx?id=11203 |title=Emily Warren Roebling |publisher=American Society of Civil Engineers |access-date=April 25, 2018 |archive-date=October 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022233216/https://www.asce.org/templates/person-bio-detail.aspx?id=11203 |url-status=dead }}</ref> taking over much of the chief engineer's duties, including day-to-day supervision and project management.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1883/05/23/archives/mrs-roeblings-skill-how-the-wife-of-the-brooklyn-bridge-engineer.html|title=Mrs. Roebling's Skill; How the Wife of the Brooklyn Bridge Engineer Has Assisted Her Husband|date=May 23, 1883|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 26, 2019|archive-date=June 26, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626151840/https://www.nytimes.com/1883/05/23/archives/mrs-roeblings-skill-how-the-wife-of-the-brooklyn-bridge-engineer.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Towers ====
[[File:Manhattan 1876.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=View of Manhattan in 1876, showing the Brooklyn Bridge under construction|View of Manhattan in 1876, showing the Brooklyn Bridge under construction]]
After the caissons were completed, piers were constructed on top of each of them upon which masonry towers would be built. The towers' construction was a complex process that took four years. Since the masonry blocks were heavy, the builders transported them to the base of the towers using a [[pulley]] system with a continuous {{Convert|1.5|in|cm|abbr=|adj=on}}-diameter steel wire rope, operated by steam engines at ground level. The blocks were then carried up on a timber track alongside each tower and maneuvered into the proper position using a [[derrick]] atop the towers.<ref name="NRHI Nomination Form p. 5" /><ref name="McCullough p. 333">{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|p=333}}</ref> The blocks sometimes vibrated the ropes because of their weight, but only once did a block  fall.<ref name="McCullough p. 333" />

Construction on the suspension towers started in mid-1872, and by the time work was halted for the winter in late 1872, parts of each tower had already been built.<ref name="McCullough pp. 297-298" /> By mid-1873, there was substantial progress on the towers' construction. The Brooklyn side's tower had reached a height of {{Convert|164|ft|m|abbr=}} above mean high water (MHW), while the tower on the Manhattan side had reached {{Convert|88|ft|m|abbr=}} above MHW.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/33025080/|title=The Brooklyn Bridge; Annual Meeting of the Company|date=June 3, 1873|work=New York Daily Herald|access-date=June 18, 2019|page=5|via=newspapers.com|archive-date=January 25, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125003629/https://www.newspapers.com/article/new-york-daily-herald-the-brooklyn-bridg/33025080/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1873/06/03/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-official-statement-of-the-progress-of-the.html|title=The Brooklyn Bridge; Official Statement of the Progress of the Work—The Annual Meeting|date=June 3, 1873|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 19, 2019|archive-date=June 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619144425/https://www.nytimes.com/1873/06/03/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-official-statement-of-the-progress-of-the.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The arches of the Brooklyn tower were completed by August 1874.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1874/08/01/archives/the-east-river-bridge-completion-of-the-arches-of-the-brooklyn-pier.html|title=The East River Bridge; Completion of the Arches of the Brooklyn Pier the Work on the New-York Side|date=August 1, 1874|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 19, 2019|archive-date=June 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619144427/https://www.nytimes.com/1874/08/01/archives/the-east-river-bridge-completion-of-the-arches-of-the-brooklyn-pier.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The tower was substantially finished by December 1874 with the erection of saddle plates for the main cables at the top of the tower. However, the ornamentation on the Brooklyn tower could not be completed until the Manhattan tower was finished.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://bklyn.newspapers.com/clip/33024962/|title=The Bridge Tower; Its Practical Completion on the Brooklyn Side To-Day|date=December 15, 1874|work=Brooklyn Daily Eagle|access-date=June 18, 2019|page=3|via=Brooklyn Public Library; newspapers.com|archive-date=January 25, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125003629/https://bklyn.newspapers.com/article/the-brooklyn-daily-eagle-the-bridge-towe/33024962/|url-status=live}}</ref> The last stone on the Brooklyn tower was raised in June 1875 and the Manhattan tower was completed in July 1876.<ref>{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|p=325}}</ref> The saddle plates atop both towers were also raised in July 1876.<ref name="McCullough p. 338">{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|p=338}}</ref> The work was dangerous: by 1876, three workers had died having fallen from the towers, while nine other workers were killed in other accidents.<ref>{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|pp=335–336}}</ref>

[[File:Brainerd, From Bridge Tower. 1996.164.2-1425.jpg|thumb|left|alt=George Bradford Brainerd's painting "From Bridge Tower", circa 1872|[[George Bradford Brainerd]], ''From Bridge Tower'', {{c.|1872}}, [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]
In 1875, while the towers were being constructed, the project had depleted its original $5&nbsp;million budget. Two bridge commissioners, one each from Brooklyn and Manhattan, petitioned New York state lawmakers to allot another $8&nbsp;million for construction. Ultimately, the legislators passed a law authorizing the allotment with the condition that the cities would buy the stock of Brooklyn Bridge's private stockholders.<ref>{{harvnb|ps=.|Barnes|1883|p=16}}</ref>

Work proceeded concurrently on the anchorages on each side.<ref>{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|p=307}}</ref> The Brooklyn anchorage broke ground in January 1873<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/33025518/|title=The Brooklyn Bridge; Work on the Anchorage Commenced|date=January 24, 1873|work=Brooklyn Times Union|access-date=June 18, 2019|page=2|via=newspapers.com|archive-date=January 25, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125004133/https://www.newspapers.com/article/times-union-the-brooklyn-bridge-work-on/33025518/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="McCullough pp. 330-331" /> and was subsequently substantially completed in August 1875.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://bklyn.newspapers.com/clip/33025598/|title=The Bridge; Completion of the Brooklyn Anchorage|date=August 16, 1875|work=Brooklyn Daily Eagle|access-date=June 18, 2019|page=4|via=Brooklyn Public Library; newspapers.com|archive-date=January 25, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125004143/https://bklyn.newspapers.com/article/the-brooklyn-daily-eagle-the-bridge-com/33025598/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="McCullough pp. 330-331" /> The Manhattan anchorage was built in less time, having started in May 1875, it was mostly completed in July 1876.<ref>{{harvnb|ps=.|National Park Service|1966|p=6}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/33026059/|title=The Towers and the Anchorages Complete, And the Cables Ready|date=July 24, 1876|work=Brooklyn Times-Union|access-date=June 18, 2019|page=3|via=newspapers.com|archive-date=January 25, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125004136/https://www.newspapers.com/article/times-union-the-towers-and-the-anchorage/33026059/|url-status=live}}</ref> The anchorages could not be fully completed until the main cables were spun, at which point another {{convert|6|ft}} would be added to the height of each {{convert|80|foot|adj=on}} anchorage.<ref name="nyt18770911">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1877/09/11/archives/the-suspension-bridge-progress-of-the-great-work-the-archways-east.html|title=The Suspension Bridge; Progress of the Great Work. The Archways East and West of the Anchorage Piers the Laying of Strands of the Great Cables Demolition of Buildings in Both Cities a Doomed Church the Line of the Road Way in New-York|date=September 11, 1877|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 22, 2019|archive-date=June 22, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622170216/https://www.nytimes.com/1877/09/11/archives/the-suspension-bridge-progress-of-the-great-work-the-archways-east.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Cables====
The first temporary wire was stretched between the towers on August 15, 1876,<ref name="McCullough p. 338" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1876/08/15/archives/the-east-river-bridge-the-first-wires-stretched-between-the-newyork.html|title=The East River Bridge; The First Wires Stretched Between the New-York And Brooklyn Towers|date=August 15, 1876|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 21, 2019|archive-date=June 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621143228/https://www.nytimes.com/1876/08/15/archives/the-east-river-bridge-the-first-wires-stretched-between-the-newyork.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="bde18760811">{{cite news|url=https://bklyn.newspapers.com/clip/50368739/|title=The Bridge. Some Interesting Facts About the Great Enterprise|date=August 11, 1876|work=Brooklyn Daily Eagle|access-date=June 18, 2019|page=4|via=Brooklyn Public Library; newspapers.com|archive-date=January 25, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125004146/https://bklyn.newspapers.com/article/the-post-crescent/50368739/|url-status=live}}</ref> using [[chrome steel]] provided by the Chrome Steel Company of Brooklyn.<ref name="McCullough p. 338" /><ref name="bde18760811" /> The wire was then stretched back across the river, and the two ends were [[Rope splicing|spliced]] to form a traveler, a lengthy loop of wire connecting the towers, which was driven by a {{Convert|30|hp||abbr=}} steam hoisting engine at ground level.<ref>{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|pp=358–359}}</ref> The wire was one of two that were used to create a temporary footbridge for workers while cable spinning was ongoing.<ref name="nyt18760830" /> The next step was to send an engineer across the completed traveler wire in a [[Bosun's chair|boatswain's chair]] slung from the wire, to ensure it was safe enough. The bridge's master mechanic, E.F. Farrington, was selected for this task, and an estimated crowd of 10,000 people on both shores watched him cross.<ref>{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|p=360}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1876/08/26/archives/a-ride-over-east-river-the-bridge-machinery-working-the-traveler.html|title=A Ride Over East River – The Bridge Machinery Working|date=August 26, 1876|work=The New York Times|access-date=June 22, 2019|page=8|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=June 22, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622142408/https://www.nytimes.com/1876/08/26/archives/a-ride-over-east-river-the-bridge-machinery-working-the-traveler.html|url-status=live}}</ref> A second traveler wire was then stretched across the span, a task that was completed by August 30.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/33127318/|title=Another Rope Across The River|date=August 30, 1876|work=New-York Tribune|access-date=June 18, 2019|page=2|via=newspapers.com|archive-date=January 25, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125004139/https://www.newspapers.com/article/new-york-tribune-another-rope-across-the/33127318/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="nyt18760830">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1876/08/30/archives/local-miscellany-work-on-the-east-river-bridge-another-wire-carried.html|title=Local Miscellany; Work on the East River Bridge. Another Wire Carried from Anchorage to Anchorage the Operation of Cutting the Lashings a Large Number of Curious Spectators Present|date=August 30, 1876|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 22, 2019|archive-date=June 22, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622142409/https://www.nytimes.com/1876/08/30/archives/local-miscellany-work-on-the-east-river-bridge-another-wire-carried.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The temporary footbridge, located some {{Convert|60|ft|m|abbr=}} above the elevation of the future deck, was completed in February 1877.<ref>{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|p=397}}</ref>

{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| total_width = 500
| image1 = Construction of Brooklyn Bridge, ca. 1872-1887. (5832930865).jpg
| caption1 = Under construction, {{circa|1872|1877}}
| image2 = View from Tower to Tower, 1877.jpg
| caption2 = "From Tower to Tower—the suspension bridge over the East River—view from the Brooklyn Tower" (1877)
| alt1 = Under construction, circa 1872–1887
| alt2 = "From Tower to Tower—the suspension bridge over the East River—view from the Brooklyn Tower", an 1877 artwork
}}

By December 1876, a steel contract for the permanent cables still had not been awarded.<ref name="nyt18761228">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1876/12/28/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-opening-of-the-bids-for-the-wire-for-the-main.html|title=The Brooklyn Bridge: Opening Of The Bids For The Wire For The Main Cables—The Contract Not Yet Awarded|date=December 28, 1876|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 21, 2019|archive-date=June 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621143228/https://www.nytimes.com/1876/12/28/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-opening-of-the-bids-for-the-wire-for-the-main.html|url-status=live}}</ref> There was disagreement over whether the bridge's cables should use the as-yet-untested [[Bessemer steel]] or the well-proven [[crucible steel]].<ref name="Talbot p. 4" /><ref>{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|p=369}}</ref> Until a permanent contract was awarded, the builders ordered {{Convert|30|ST|LT|abbr=}} of wire in the interim, 10 tons each from three companies, including Washington Roebling's own steel mill in Brooklyn.<ref>{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|p=381}}</ref> In the end, it was decided to use number 8 [[Birmingham gauge]] (approximately 4&nbsp;mm or 0.165 inches in diameter) crucible steel, and a request for bids was distributed, to which eight companies responded.<ref name="nyt18761228" /> In January 1877, a contract for crucible steel was awarded to [[J. Lloyd Haigh]],<ref name="Talbot p. 4" /><ref>{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|p=393}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1877/01/16/archives/the-east-river-bridge-decision-of-the-trustees-in-favor-of-the-use.html|title=The East River Bridge; Decision of the Trustees in Favor of the Use of Crucible Cast-Steel Cables Award of the Contract to Mr. J. Lloyd Haigh|date=January 16, 1877|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 21, 2019|archive-date=June 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621143227/https://www.nytimes.com/1877/01/16/archives/the-east-river-bridge-decision-of-the-trustees-in-favor-of-the-use.html|url-status=live}}</ref> who was associated with bridge trustee [[Abram Hewitt]], whom Roebling distrusted.<ref name="nyt19860308" /><ref>{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|p=396}}</ref>

The spinning of the wires required the manufacture of large coils of it which were galvanized but not oiled when they left the factory. The coils were delivered to a yard near the Brooklyn anchorage. There they were dipped in [[linseed oil]], hoisted to the top of the anchorage, dried out and spliced into a single wire, and finally coated with red zinc for further galvanizing.<ref name="McCullough pp. 400-401">{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|pp=400–401}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1877/07/07/archives/the-east-river-bridge-satisfactory-progress-of-the-work-how-the.html|title=The East River Bridge; Satisfactory Progress of the Work How the Wires Are Laid and the Strands Formed|date=July 7, 1877|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 22, 2019|archive-date=June 22, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622165435/https://www.nytimes.com/1877/07/07/archives/the-east-river-bridge-satisfactory-progress-of-the-work-how-the.html|url-status=live}}</ref> There were thirty-two drums at the anchorage yard, eight for each of the four main cables. Each drum had a capacity of {{Convert|60,000|ft|m|abbr=}} of wire.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1877/05/27/archives/the-east-river-bridge-slow-but-satisfactory-work-placing-the-great.html|title=The East River Bridge; Slow but Satisfactory Work Placing the Great Cables in Position a New Iron Staircase at the Brooklyn Tower|date=May 27, 1877|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 22, 2019|archive-date=June 22, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622165432/https://www.nytimes.com/1877/05/27/archives/the-east-river-bridge-slow-but-satisfactory-work-placing-the-great.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The first experimental wire for the main cables was stretched between the towers on May 29, 1877, and spinning began two weeks later.<ref name="McCullough pp. 400-401" /> All four main cables were being strung by that July. During that time, the temporary footbridge was unofficially opened to members of the public, who could receive a visitor's pass; by August 1877 several thousand visitors from around the world had used the footbridge.<ref name="McCullough pp. 405-408">{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|pp=405–408}}</ref> The visitor passes ceased that September after a visitor had an [[epileptic seizure]] and nearly fell off.<ref name="McCullough pp. 405-408" /><ref name="bde18771002">{{cite news|url=https://bklyn.newspapers.com/clip/33132897/|title=The Bridge; Regular Monthly Meeting of the Trustees|date=October 2, 1877|work=Brooklyn Daily Eagle|access-date=June 18, 2019|page=2|via=Brooklyn Public Library; newspapers.com|archive-date=January 25, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125004138/https://bklyn.newspapers.com/article/the-brooklyn-daily-eagle-the-bridge-reg/33132897/|url-status=live}}</ref>

As the wires were being spun, work also commenced on the demolition of buildings on either side of the river for the Brooklyn Bridge's approaches; this work was mostly complete by September 1877.<ref name="nyt18770911" /> The following month, initial contracts were awarded for the suspender wires, which would hang down from the main cables and support the deck.<ref name="bde18771002" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1877/10/02/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-first-fall-meeting-of-the-trustees-a-discussion.html|title=The Brooklyn Bridge; First Fall Meeting of the Trustees a Discussion as to the Use of Bessemer or Cast Steel for the Wire Rope|date=October 2, 1877|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 22, 2019|archive-date=June 22, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622180826/https://www.nytimes.com/1877/10/02/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-first-fall-meeting-of-the-trustees-a-discussion.html|url-status=live}}</ref> By May 1878, the main cables were more than two-thirds complete.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1878/05/21/archives/work-on-the-east-river-bridge-the-main-cables-more-than-twothirds.html|title=Work on the East River Bridge; The Main Cables More Than Two-Thirds Completed Method of Transit and Fares a Separate Bridge Railway Favored by the Directors|date=May 21, 1878|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 22, 2019|archive-date=June 22, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622165433/https://www.nytimes.com/1878/05/21/archives/work-on-the-east-river-bridge-the-main-cables-more-than-twothirds.html|url-status=live}}</ref> However, the following month, one of the wires slipped, killing two people and injuring three others.<ref>{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|pp=438–440}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1878/06/15/archives/killed-by-a-cable-strand-fatal-crash-at-the-brooklyn-bridge-the.html|title=Killed by a Cable Strand; Fatal Crash at the Brooklyn Bridge|date=June 15, 1878|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 22, 2019|archive-date=June 22, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622180830/https://www.nytimes.com/1878/06/15/archives/killed-by-a-cable-strand-fatal-crash-at-the-brooklyn-bridge-the.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/33133201/|title=The Bridge Accident|date=June 15, 1878|work=Brooklyn Times Union|access-date=June 18, 2019|page=2|via=newspapers.com|archive-date=January 25, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125004141/https://www.newspapers.com/article/times-union-the-bridge-accident/33133201/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1877, Hewitt wrote a letter urging against the use of Bessemer steel in the bridge's construction.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Brooklyn Bridge |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/43118341/ |newspaper=New York Daily Herald |date=January 14, 1877 |page=14 |via=newspapers.com |access-date=April 26, 2018 |archive-date=January 25, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125004140/https://www.newspapers.com/article/new-york-daily-herald-the-brooklyn-bridg/43118341/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |publisher=[[Simon and Schuster]] |isbn=978-0-7432-1831-3 |last=McCullough |first=David |title=The Great Bridge: The Epic Story of the Building of the Brooklyn Bridge |date=May 31, 2007}}</ref> Bids had been submitted for both crucible steel and Bessemer steel; [[John A. Roebling's Sons]] submitted the lowest bid for Bessemer steel,<ref>{{cite news |title=Monthly Meeting of the Trustees |url=https://bklyn.newspapers.com/clip/19592569/brooklyn_daily_eagle_the_bridge/ |newspaper=Brooklyn Daily Eagle |date=January 12, 1877 |page=2 |via=Brooklyn Public Library; newspapers.com |access-date=April 26, 2018 |archive-date=January 27, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127201424/https://bklyn.newspapers.com/clip/19592569/brooklyn_daily_eagle_the_bridge/ |url-status=live }}</ref> but at Hewitt's direction, the contract was awarded to Haigh.<ref>{{cite book | last=Reier | first=Sharon | title=Bridges of New York | publisher=[[Dover Publications]] | year=2012 | isbn=978-0-486-13705-6 | oclc=868273040 | page=20}}</ref><ref name="McCullough pp. 443-444" />

A subsequent investigation discovered that Haigh had substituted inferior quality wire in the cables. Of eighty rings of wire that were tested, only five met standards, and it was estimated that Haigh had earned $300,000 from the deception.<ref name="McCullough pp. 443-444">{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|pp=443–444, 447}}</ref><ref name="Mensch 2018 p. 114" /> At this point, it was too late to replace the cables that had already been constructed. Roebling determined that the poorer wire would leave the bridge only four times as strong as necessary, rather than six to eight times as strong. The inferior-quality wire was allowed to remain and 150 extra wires were added to each cable.<ref name="Talbot p. 4" /><ref name="McCullough pp. 443-444" /><ref name="Mensch 2018 p. 114">{{cite book | last=Mensch | first=B.G. | title=In the Shadow of Genius: The Brooklyn Bridge and Its Creators | publisher=Fordham University Press | year=2018 | isbn=978-0-8232-8105-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8L-IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA114 | access-date=February 12, 2020 | page=114 | archive-date=January 25, 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125004547/https://books.google.com/books?id=8L-IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA114#v=onepage&q&f=false | url-status=live }}</ref> To avoid public controversy, Haigh was not fired, but instead was required to personally pay for higher-quality wire.<ref name="Mensch 2018 p. 114" />{{efn|By 1880, Haigh was incarcerated in [[Sing Sing]] prison for an unrelated crime.<ref name="Mensch 2018 p. 114" />}} The contract for the remaining wire was awarded to the John A. Roebling's Sons, and by October&nbsp;5, 1878, the last of the main cables' wires went over the river.<ref>{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|p=451}}</ref>

==== Nearing completion ====
{{Multiple image
| direction         = vertical
| total_width       = 240
| image1            = Currier and Ives Brooklyn Bridge2.jpg
| alt1              = A colored lithograph of the completed Brooklyn Bridge looking towards Manhattan
| caption1          = [[Chromolithograph]] of the "Great East River Suspension Bridge" by Currier and Ives, created in 1883.
| image2            = View from the Manhattan Bridge 008.jpg
| alt2              = A photograph of the bridge from a similar angle as the lithograph, with the skyscrapers of Lower Manhattan in view
| caption2          = Similar view, 2023
}}
After the suspender wires had been placed, workers began erecting steel crossbeams to support the roadway as part of the bridge's overall superstructure.<ref name="Talbot p. 4" /> Construction on the bridge's superstructure started in March 1879,<ref name="concise-description" /> but, as with the cables, the trustees initially disagreed on whether the steel superstructure should be made of Bessemer or crucible steel.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1879/07/02/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-will-the-trustees-get-good-or-bad-steel-for-the.html|title=The Brooklyn Bridge; Will the Trustees Get Good or Bad Steel for the Superstructure?|date=July 2, 1879|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 23, 2019|archive-date=June 23, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190623164111/https://www.nytimes.com/1879/07/02/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-will-the-trustees-get-good-or-bad-steel-for-the.html|url-status=live}}</ref> That July, the trustees decided to award a contract for {{Convert|500|ST|LT}} of Bessemer steel<ref name="gazette18800412">{{Cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/40735704/|title=The Steel for Brooklyn Bridge|date=April 12, 1880|work=The Daily Gazette|access-date=December 17, 2019|page=1|via=newspapers.com|archive-date=January 25, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125004657/https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-gazette-the-steel-for-brooklyn/40735704/|url-status=live}}</ref> to the Edgemoor (or Edge Moor) Iron Works, based in [[Philadelphia]], to be delivered by 1880.<ref name="gazette18800412" /><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/33162797/|title=The Edgemoor Iron Works|date=July 10, 1879|work=Brooklyn Times-Union|access-date=June 18, 2019|page=2|via=newspapers.com|archive-date=January 25, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125004542/https://www.newspapers.com/article/times-union-the-edgemoor-iron-works/33162797/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1879/07/08/archives/controller-steinmetzs-letter-hon-henry-o-murphy-president-board.html|title=Controller Steinmetz's Letter; Hon. Henry O. Murphy, President Board Trustees of the New-York And Brooklyn Bridge: SIR: At the Last Meeting of the Executive Committee the Following Resolution Was Passed by a Majority Vote|date=July 8, 1879|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 23, 2019|archive-date=June 23, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190623164110/https://www.nytimes.com/1879/07/08/archives/controller-steinmetzs-letter-hon-henry-o-murphy-president-board.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The trustees later passed another resolution for another {{Convert|500|ST|LT}} of Bessemer steel.<ref name="gazette18800412" /> However, by February 1880 the steel deliveries had not started.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1880/02/03/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-an-important-steel-contract-discussed-salaries.html|title=The Brooklyn Bridge; An Important Steel Contract Discussed --Salaries Raised|date=February 3, 1880|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 23, 2019|archive-date=June 23, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190623164108/https://www.nytimes.com/1880/02/03/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-an-important-steel-contract-discussed-salaries.html|url-status=live}}</ref> That October, the bridge trustees questioned Edgemoor's president about the delay in steel deliveries.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/33192926/|title=The Edgemoor Iron Works|date=October 5, 1880|work=New-York Tribune|access-date=June 18, 2019|page=8|via=newspapers.com|archive-date=January 25, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125004557/https://www.newspapers.com/article/new-york-tribune-meeting-of-the-bridge-t/33192926/|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite Edgemoor's assurances that the contract would be fulfilled, the deliveries still had not been completed by November 1881.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1881/11/09/archives/steel-for-the-brooklyn-bridge.html|title=Steel for the Brooklyn Bridge|date=November 9, 1881|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 24, 2019|archive-date=June 24, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190624140837/https://www.nytimes.com/1881/11/09/archives/steel-for-the-brooklyn-bridge.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Brooklyn mayor [[Seth Low]], who became part of the board of trustees in 1882, became the chairman of a committee tasked to investigate Edgemoor's failure to fulfill the contract. When questioned, Edgemoor's president stated that the delays were the fault of another contractor, the [[Cambria Iron Company]], who was manufacturing the eyebars for the bridge trusses; at that point, the contract was supposed to be complete by October 1882.<ref name="McCullough p. 485">{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|p=485}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1882/06/25/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-again.html|title=The Brooklyn Bridge Again|date=June 25, 1882|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 24, 2019|archive-date=June 24, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190624140838/https://www.nytimes.com/1882/06/25/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-again.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Further complicating the situation, Washington Roebling had failed to appear at the trustees' meeting in June 1882, since he had gone to [[Newport, Rhode Island]].<ref name="McCullough p. 485" /> After the news media discovered this, most of the newspapers called for Roebling to be fired as chief engineer, except for the ''Daily State Gazette'' of [[Trenton, New Jersey]], and the ''Brooklyn Daily Eagle''.<ref name="McCullough pp. 494-495">{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|pp=494–495}}</ref> Some of the longstanding trustees, including [[Henry C. Murphy]], [[James S. T. Stranahan]], and [[William C. Kingsley]], were willing to vouch for Roebling, since construction progress on the Brooklyn Bridge was still ongoing. However, Roebling's behavior was considered suspect among the younger trustees who had joined the board more recently.<ref name="McCullough pp. 494-495" />

Construction on the bridge itself was noted in formal reports that Murphy presented each month to the mayors of New York and Brooklyn. For example, Murphy's report in August 1882 noted that the month's progress included 114 intermediate cords erected within a week, as well as 72 diagonal stays, 60 posts, and numerous floor beams, bridging trusses, and stay bars.<ref name="McCullough pp. 494-495" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1882/08/24/archives/progress-of-the-brooklyn-bridge.html|title=Progress of the Brooklyn Bridge|date=August 24, 1882|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 24, 2019|archive-date=June 24, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190624140837/https://www.nytimes.com/1882/08/24/archives/progress-of-the-brooklyn-bridge.html|url-status=live}}</ref> By early 1883, the Brooklyn Bridge was considered mostly completed and was projected to open that June.<ref name="nyt18830213">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1883/02/13/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-bids-for-lighting-the-structure-by-electricity.html|title=The Brooklyn Bridge; Bids for Lighting the Structure by Electricity|date=February 13, 1883|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 25, 2019|archive-date=June 25, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190625015632/https://www.nytimes.com/1883/02/13/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-bids-for-lighting-the-structure-by-electricity.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Contracts for bridge lighting were awarded by February 1883,<ref name="nyt18830213" /> and a toll scheme was approved that March.<ref name="nyt18830313">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1883/03/13/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-a-schedule-of-tolls-reportedthe-future-control.html|title=The Brooklyn Bridge; A Schedule of Tolls Reported|date=March 13, 1883|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=June 25, 2019|archive-date=June 25, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190625015632/https://www.nytimes.com/1883/03/13/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-a-schedule-of-tolls-reportedthe-future-control.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Opposition====

There was substantial opposition to the bridge's construction from shipbuilders and merchants located to the north, who argued that the bridge would not provide sufficient clearance underneath for ships.<ref name="McCullough p. 424">{{harvnb|ps=.|McCullough|1972|p=424}}</ref> In May 1876, these groups, led by Abraham Miller, filed a lawsuit in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of New York]] against the cities of New York and Brooklyn.<ref name="McCullough p. 424" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1883/11/07/archives/the-big-brooklyn-bridge-the-supreme-court-asked-to-call-it-an.html|title=The Big Brooklyn Bridge; The Supreme Court Asked to Call It an Obstruction|date=November 7, 1883|work=The New York Times|access-date=June 26, 2019|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=January 25, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125004541/https://www.nytimes.com/1883/11/07/archives/the-big-brooklyn-bridge-the-supreme-court-asked-to-call-it-an.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1879, an Assembly Sub-Committee on Commerce and Navigation began an investigation into the Brooklyn Bridge. A seaman who had been hired to determine the height of the span, testified to the committee about the difficulties that ship masters would experience in bringing their ships under the bridge when it was completed. Another witness, [[Edward Wellman Serrell]], a civil engineer, said that the calculations of the bridge's assumed strength were incorrect.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1879/03/21/archives/city-and-suburban-news-newyork-brooklyn-newjersey.html|title=The Obstacles to the Bridge, Views Of New Yorkers—Its Supposed Shakiness|date=March 21, 1879|work=The New York Times|access-date=January 24, 2020|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=March 8, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308202139/https://www.nytimes.com/1879/03/21/archives/city-and-suburban-news-newyork-brooklyn-newjersey.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://fultonhistory.com/highlighter/highlight-for-xml?altUrl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fultonhistory.com%2FNewspaper%252010%2FNew%2520York%2520NY%2520Evening%2520Post%2FNew%2520York%2520NY%2520Evening%2520Post%25201879%2520Grayscale%2FNew%2520York%2520NY%2520Evening%2520Post%25201879%2520Grayscale%2520-%25200262.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901060110/https://www.fultonhistory.com/Newspaper%2010/New%20York%20NY%20Evening%20Post/New%20York%20NY%20Evening%20Post%201879%20Grayscale/New%20York%20NY%20Evening%20Post%201879%20Grayscale%20-%200262.pdf |archive-date=September 1, 2021 |url-status=live|title=The East River Bridge; Doubts Expressed of Its Asserted Strength|date=March 21, 1879|work=The Evening Post|via=fultonhistory.com|access-date=January 23, 2020}}</ref> The Supreme Court decided in 1883 that the Brooklyn Bridge was a lawful structure.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1883/11/27/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-suit-the-united-states-supreme-court-decides.html|title=The Brooklyn Bridge Suit; The United States Supreme Court Decides That It Is a Lawful Structure|date=November 27, 1883|work=The New York Times|access-date=June 26, 2019|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=June 26, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626145241/https://www.nytimes.com/1883/11/27/archives/the-brooklyn-bridge-suit-the-united-states-supreme-court-decides.html|url-status=live}}</ref>