Editing Bohdan Khmelnytsky (section)

==Influences ==
Khmelnytsky had a crucial influence on the history of Ukraine. He not only shaped the future of Ukraine but affected the [[balance of power in international relations|balance of power]] in Europe, as the weakening of Poland-Lithuania was exploited by Austria, Saxony, Prussia, and Russia. His actions and role in events were viewed differently by different contemporaries, and even now there are greatly differing perspectives on his legacy.

===Ukrainian assessment===
[[File:5 hryvnia 2005 front.jpg|thumb|A five [[Ukrainian hryvnia]] [[banknote]] depicting Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky]]
[[File:Kiev khmelnitsky.jpg|thumb|The [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky Monument, Kyiv|Khmelnytsky Monument in Kiev]] in 1905]]
In Ukraine, Khmelnytsky is generally regarded as a national hero.<ref name="Dalton2000">{{cite book|last=Dalton|first=Meredith|title=Culture Shock!: Ukraine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KGhaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA56|year=2000|publisher=Graphics Arts Center|isbn=978-1-55868-420-1|page=56}}</ref><ref name="Steinlauf1997">{{cite book|last=Steinlauf|first=Michael C.|author-link=Michael C. Steinlauf|title=Bondage to the Dead: Poland and the Memory of the Holocaust|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PbKbXvQDYQMC&pg=PA148|year=1997|publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn=978-0-8156-0403-7|page=148}}</ref><ref name="StrmiskaStrmiska2005">{{cite book|last=Strmiska|first=Michael F.|title=Modern Paganism in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qx7Tvd99xVAC&pg=PA228|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-608-4|page=228}}</ref> A [[Khmelnytskyi|city]]<ref>{{cite web |first=Halyna |last=Hlushko |url=http://www.wumag.kiev.ua/index2.php?param=pgs20073/28 |title=Pereyaslav Khmelnytsky – a town of museums |publisher=Wumag.kiev.ua |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080613175702/http://www.wumag.kiev.ua/index2.php?param=pgs20073%2F28 |archive-date=13 June 2008 }}</ref> and a [[Khmelnytskyi Oblast|region]] of the country bear his name. His image is prominently displayed on Ukrainian [[banknote]]s and his [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky Monument, Kiev|monument]] in the centre of Kyiv is a focal point of the Ukrainian capital. There have also been several issues of the [[Order of Bohdan Khmelnytsky]] – one of the highest decorations in Ukraine and in the former Soviet Union.

However, with all this positive appreciation of his legacy, even in [[Ukraine]] it is far from being unanimous. He is criticised for his union with Russia, which in the view of some, proved to be disastrous for the future of the country. Prominent Ukrainian poet, [[Taras Shevchenko]], was one of Khmelnytsky's very vocal and harsh critics.<ref>{{cite web|last=Konoval|first=Oleksiy|url=http://universum.lviv.ua/previous-site/archive/journal/2002/konovo_7.html|script-title=uk:Чи варто відзначати річницю Переяславського договору?|trans-title=Is it worth celebrating the anniversary of the Treaty of Pereyaslav?|language=uk|publisher=universum.lviv.ua|date=2002|access-date=3 August 2017}}</ref> Others criticize him for his alliance with the Crimean Tatars, which permitted the latter to take a large number of Ukrainian peasants as slaves, as the Cossacks as a military caste did not protect the ''[[kholop]]y'', the lowest stratum of the Ukrainian people. Folk songs capture this. On the balance, the view of his legacy in present-day Ukraine is more positive than negative, with some critics acknowledging that the union with Russia was dictated by necessity and an attempt to survive in those difficult times.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}}

In a 2018 Ukraine's [[Sociological group "RATING"|Rating Sociological Group]] poll, 73% of Ukrainian respondents had a positive attitude to Khmelnytsky.<ref>{{cite news |title=Survey shows Ukrainians most negatively regard Stalin, Lenin and Gorbachev |url=https://www.kyivpost.com/ukraine-politics/survey-shows-ukrainians-most-negatively-regard-stalin-lenin-and-gorbachev.html |work=Kyiv Post |date=20 November 2018}}</ref>

===Polish assessment===
Khmelnytsky's role in the history of the Polish State has been viewed mostly in a negative light. The rebellion of 1648 proved to be the end of the [[Golden Age]] of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Commonwealth]] and the beginning of its demise. Although it survived the rebellion and the following war, within less than two hundred years it was divided amongst [[Russian Empire|Russia]], [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], and [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]] in the [[partitions of Poland]]. Many Poles blamed Khmelnytsky for the decline of the Commonwealth.<ref>{{cite book|first=Володимир|last=Голобуцький|url=http://litopys.org.ua/holob/hol13.htm|script-title=uk:Запорозьке Козацтво – Розділ XI. Хмельниччина і Запорозьке Козацтво|trans-title=Zaporozhian Cossackdom – Section XI. Khmelnychchyna and Zaporozhian Cossackdom|language=uk|publisher=Litopys|date=1994|access-date=11 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610054540/http://litopys.org.ua/holob/hol13.htm|archive-date=10 June 2016}}</ref>

Khmelnytsky has been a subject to several works of fiction in the 19th century Polish literature, but the most notable treatment of him in [[Polish literature]] is found in [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]]'s ''[[With Fire and Sword]]''.<ref name="Glaser2015-110">{{cite book|first=Roman|last=Koropeckyj|chapter=The Image of Bohdan Khmelnytsky in Polish Romanticism and Its Post-Romantic Reflex|editor=Amelia Glaser|title=Stories of Khmelnytsky: Competing Literary Legacies of the 1648 Ukrainian Cossack Uprising|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=onsxCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA110|date=19 August 2015|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-9382-7|pages=110–111}}</ref> The rather critical portrayal of him by Sienkiewicz has been moderated in the [[With Fire and Sword (film)|1999 movie adaptation]] by [[Jerzy Hoffman]].<ref name="Glaser2015-208">{{cite book|first1=Izabela|last1=Kalinowska|first2=Marta|last2=Kondratyuk|chapter=Khmelnytsky in Motion: The Case of Soviet, Polish, and Ukrainian film|editor=Amelia Glaser|title=Stories of Khmelnytsky: Competing Literary Legacies of the 1648 Ukrainian Cossack Uprising|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=onsxCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA208|date=19 August 2015|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-9382-7|page=208}}</ref><ref name="Scott2007">{{cite book|last=Scott|first=Douglas D.|author-link=Douglas D. Scott|title=Fields of Conflict: Battlefield Archaeology from the Roman Empire to the Korean War. Searching for war in the ancient and early modern world|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nDQqAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA194|year=2007|publisher=Praeger Security International|isbn=978-0-275-99316-0|page=194}}</ref>
[[File:5 hryvnia coin of Ukraine, 2018 (reverse).jpg|thumb|Five hryvnia coin, Ukraine, 2018 (reverse)]]

===Russian and Soviet history===
The official Russian [[historiography]] stressed the fact that Khmelnytsky entered into union with Moscow's Tsar [[Alexei Mikhailovich]] with an expressed desire to "re-unify" Ukraine with Russia. This view corresponded with the official theory of Moscow as an heir of the [[Kievan Rus']], which appropriately gathered its former territories.<ref name="HeroRosSov">{{cite book|editor1=Georgiy Kasianov|editor2=Philipp Ther|title=A Laboratory of Transnational History: Ukraine and Recent Ukrainian Historiography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjFjTRL5O_4C&pg=PA54|year=2009|publisher=Central European University Press|isbn=978-963-9776-26-5|pages=54–55}}</ref>

Khmelnytsky was viewed as a national hero of Russia for bringing Ukraine into the "eternal union" of all the Russias – Great (Russia), Little (Ukraine) and White (Belarus) Russia. As such, he was much respected and venerated during the existence of the Russian Empire. His role was presented as a model for all Ukrainians to follow: to aspire for closer ties with Great Russia. This view was expressed in a monument commissioned by the [[Russian nationalism|Russian nationalist]] [[Mikhail Yuzefovich]], which was installed in the centre of [[Kiev]] in 1888.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CE%5CM%5CEmsUkase.htm|title=Ems Ukase|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Ukraine|access-date=11 June 2016}}</ref><ref>Mikhail Yuzefovich was also known for his contribution to the [[Ems Ukase]], which restricted the use of Ukrainian in [[Ukraine]].</ref>

Russian authorities decided the original version of the monument (created by Russian sculptor [[Mikhail Mikeshin]]) was too [[xenophobic]]; it was to depict a vanquished Pole noble, Jewish landlord, and a Catholic priest under the hooves of the horse. The inscription on the monument reads "To Bohdan Khmelnytsky from one and indivisible Russia."<ref>{{cite web|first=Viktor|last=Kyrkevych|url=http://www.oldkiev.info/pamyatniki_kieva/pamyatnik_Bogdanu_Xmelnickomu.html|script-title=ru:Памятник Богдану Хмельницкому|trans-title=Monument to Bohdan Khmelnytsky|language=ru|publisher=oldkiev.info|access-date=11 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416002235/http://www.oldkiev.info/pamyatniki_kieva/pamyatnik_Bogdanu_Xmelnickomu.html|archive-date=16 April 2016}}</ref> Mikeshin also created the Monument to the [[Millennium of Russia]] in [[Novgorod]], which has Khmelnytsky shown as one of Russia's prominent figures.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.novgorod.ru/english/read/information/architecture/millennium-russia/|title=The Monument to the Millennium of Russia|publisher=novgorod.ru|date=2007|access-date=11 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092045/http://www.novgorod.ru/english/read/information/architecture/millennium-russia/|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref>

[[Soviet historiography]] followed in many ways the Imperial Russian theory of re-unification while adding the [[class struggle]] dimension to the story.<ref name="HeroRosSov"/> Khmelnytsky was praised not only for re-unifying Ukraine with Russia, but also for organizing the class struggle of oppressed Ukrainian peasants against Polish exploiters.

===Jewish history===
{{Main|Khmelnytsky uprising|Yeven Mezulah}}
{{History of Ukraine}}
The assessment of Khmelnytsky in [[Jewish history]] is overwhelmingly negative because he used Jews as scapegoats and sought to eradicate Jews from Ukraine. The [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] led to the deaths of an estimated 18,000–100,000 Jews. These estimates include deaths from starvation and disease.<ref name="Stampfer">{{cite journal|last=Stampfer|first=Shaul|author-link=Shaul Stampfer|title=What Actually Happened to the Jews of Ukraine in 1648?|journal=Jewish History|publisher=Springer Nature|volume=17|issue=2|date=May 2003|issn=0334-701X|doi=10.1023/a:1022330717763|pages=207–227|s2cid=159092052}}</ref><ref>Sources estimating 100,000 Jews killed:
*"Bogdan Chmelnitzki leads Cossack uprising against Polish rule; 100,000 Jews are killed and hundreds of Jewish communities are destroyed." [http://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/religion/judaism/timeline.html Judaism Timeline 1618–1770], ''[[CBS News]]''. Accessed 13 May 2007.
*"The peasants of Ukraine rose up in 1648 under a petty aristocrat Bogdan Chmielnicki. ... It is estimated that 100,000 Jews were massacred and 300 of their communities destroyed". Oscar Reiss. ''The Jews in Colonial America'', McFarland & Company, 2004, {{ISBN|0-7864-1730-7}}, pp. 98–99.
*"Moreover, Poles must have been keenly aware of the massacre of Jews in 1768 and even more so as the result of the much more widespread massacres (approximately 100,000 dead) of the earlier Chmielnicki pogroms during the preceding century." Manus I. Midlarsky. ''The Killing Trap: genocide in the twentieth century'', Cambridge University Press, 2005,{{ISBN|0-521-81545-2}}, p. 352.
*"... as many as 100,000 Jews were murdered throughout the Ukraine by Bogdan Chmielnicki's Cossack soldiers on the rampage." [[Martin Gilbert]]. ''Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past'', Columbia University Press, 1999, {{ISBN|0-231-10965-2}}, p. 219.
*"A series of massacres perpetrated by the Ukrainian Cossacks under the leadership of Bogdan Chmielnicki saw the death of up to 100,000 Jews and the destruction of perhaps 700 communities between 1648 and 1654 ..." Samuel Totten. ''Teaching About Genocide: Issues, Approaches, and Resources'', Information Age Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|1-59311-074-X}}, p. 25.
*"In response to Poland having taken control of much of the Ukraine in the early seventeenth century, Ukrainian peasants mobilized as groups of cavalry, and these "cossacks" in the Chmielnicki uprising of 1648 killed an estimated 100,000 Jews." Cara Camcastle. ''The More Moderate Side of Joseph De Maistre: Views on Political Liberty And Political Economy'', McGill-Queen's Press, 2005, {{ISBN|0-7735-2976-4}}, p. 26
*"Is there not a difference in nature between Hitler's extermination of three million Polish Jews between 1939 and 1945 because he wanted every Jew dead and the mass murder [in] 1648–49 of 100,000 Polish Jews by General Bogdan Chmielnicki because he wanted to end Polish rule in the Ukraine and was prepared to use Cossack terrorism to kill Jews in the process?" Colin Martin Tatz. ''With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide'', Verso, 2003, {{ISBN|1-85984-550-9}}, p. 146.
*"... massacring an estimated one hundred thousand Jews as the Ukrainian Bogdan Chmielnicki had done nearly three centuries earlier." Mosheh Weiss. ''A Brief History of the Jewish People'', Rowman & Littlefield, 2004, {{ISBN|0-7425-4402-8}}, p. 193.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Chanes|first=Jerome A.|title=Antisemitism: A Reference Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ju7U83nRDt8C&pg=PA56|year=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-209-7|page=56}}</ref> Atrocity stories about massacre victims who had been buried alive, cut to pieces or forced to kill one another spread throughout Europe and beyond. The pogroms contributed to a revival of the ideas of [[Isaac Luria]], who revered the [[Kabbalah]], and the identification of [[Sabbatai Zevi]] as the Messiah.<ref>Karen Armstrong, [[The Battle for God]]: ''A History of Fundamentalism'', Random House, 2001, p25-28.</ref> [[Orest Subtelny]] writes:
<blockquote>Between 1648 and 1656, tens of thousands of Jews—given the lack of reliable data, it is impossible to establish more accurate figures—were killed by the rebels, and to this day the Khmelnytsky uprising is considered by Jews to be one of the most traumatic events in their history.<ref name="Ukraine 1988, pp. 127-128">[[Orest Subtelny]], ''[[Ukraine: A History]]'', 1988, pp. 127–128.</ref></blockquote>