Editing Biodiversity (section)

===Ecosystem services===
{{further|Ecosystem services|Ecological effects of biodiversity}}

There have been many claims about biodiversity's effect on the [[Ecosystem service|ecosystem services]], especially ''provisioning'' and ''regulating services''.<ref name="diversity-loss-and-its-impact">{{cite journal |last1=Cardinale |first1=Bradley J. |last2=Duffy |first2=J. Emmett |last3=Gonzalez |first3=Andrew |last4=Hooper |first4=David U. |last5=Perrings |first5=Charles |last6=Venail |first6=Patrick |last7=Narwani |first7=Anita |last8=Mace |first8=Georgina M. |last9=Tilman |first9=David |last10=Wardle |first10=David A. |last11=Kinzig |first11=Ann P. |last12=Daily |first12=Gretchen C. |last13=Loreau |first13=Michel |last14=Grace |first14=James B. |last15=Larigauderie |first15=Anne |last16=Srivastava |first16=Diane S. |last17=Naeem |first17=Shahid |title=Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity |journal=Nature |date=7 June 2012 |volume=486 |issue=7401 |pages=59–67 |doi=10.1038/nature11148 |pmid=22678280 |bibcode=2012Natur.486...59C |url=https://pub.epsilon.slu.se/10240/7/wardle_d_etal_130415.pdf }}</ref> Some of those claims have been validated, some are incorrect and some lack enough evidence to draw definitive conclusions.<ref name="diversity-loss-and-its-impact" />

Ecosystem services have been grouped in three types:<ref name="diversity-loss-and-its-impact" />
# Provisioning services which involve the production of renewable resources (e.g.: food, wood, fresh water)
# Regulating services which are those that lessen environmental change (e.g.: climate regulation, pest/disease control)
# Cultural services represent human value and enjoyment (e.g.: landscape aesthetics, cultural heritage, outdoor recreation and spiritual significance)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Daniel |first1=Terry C. |last2=Muhar |first2=Andreas |last3=Arnberger |first3=Arne |last4=Aznar |first4=Olivier |last5=Boyd |first5=James W. |last6=Chan |first6=Kai M. A. |last7=Costanza |first7=Robert |last8=Elmqvist |first8=Thomas |last9=Flint |first9=Courtney G. |last10=Gobster |first10=Paul H. |last11=Grêt-Regamey |first11=Adrienne |last12=Lave |first12=Rebecca |last13=Muhar |first13=Susanne |last14=Penker |first14=Marianne |last15=Ribe |first15=Robert G. |last16=Schauppenlehner |first16=Thomas |last17=Sikor |first17=Thomas |last18=Soloviy |first18=Ihor |last19=Spierenburg |first19=Marja |last20=Taczanowska |first20=Karolina |last21=Tam |first21=Jordan |last22=von der Dunk |first22=Andreas |title=Contributions of cultural services to the ecosystem services agenda |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=5 June 2012 |volume=109 |issue=23 |pages=8812–8819 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1114773109 |doi-access=free |pmid=22615401 |pmc=3384142 |bibcode=2012PNAS..109.8812D }}</ref>

Experiments with controlled environments have shown that humans cannot easily build ecosystems to support human needs;<ref>{{cite news |last=Broad |first=William |date=19 November 1996 |title=Paradise Lost: Biosphere Retooled as Atmospheric Nightmare |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/11/19/science/paradise-lost-biosphere-retooled-as-atmospheric-nightmare.html |access-date=10 April 2013 |newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref> for example [[entomophily|insect pollination]] cannot be mimicked, though there have been attempts to create artificial pollinators using [[unmanned aerial vehicles]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ponti |first1=Crystal |date=3 March 2017 |title=Rise of the Robot Bees: Tiny Drones Turned into Artificial Pollinators |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2017/03/03/517785082/rise-of-the-robot-bees-tiny-drones-turned-into-artificial-pollinators |access-date=18 January 2018 |agency=NPR}}</ref> The economic activity of pollination alone represented between $2.1–14.6&nbsp;billion in 2003.<ref>{{cite journal |last=LOSEY |first=JOHN E. |author2=VAUGHAN, MACE |date=1 January 2006 |title=The Economic Value of Ecological Services Provided by Insects |journal=BioScience |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=311 |doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2006)56[311:TEVOES]2.0.CO;2 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Other sources have reported somewhat conflicting results and in 1997 [[Robert Costanza]] and his colleagues reported the estimated global value of ecosystem services (not captured in traditional markets) at an average of $33&nbsp;trillion annually.<ref name="nature.com">{{cite journal |last1=Costanza |first1=Robert |last2=d'Arge |first2=Ralph |last3=de Groot |first3=Rudolf |last4=Farber |first4=Stephen |last5=Grasso |first5=Monica |last6=Hannon |first6=Bruce |last7=Limburg |first7=Karin |last8=Naeem |first8=Shahid |last9=O'Neill |first9=Robert V. |last10=Paruelo |first10=Jose |last11=Raskin |first11=Robert G. |last12=Sutton |first12=Paul |last13=van den Belt |first13=Marjan |title=The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital |journal=Nature |date=May 1997 |volume=387 |issue=6630 |pages=253–260 |doi=10.1038/387253a0 |bibcode=1997Natur.387..253C |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10189378/ }}</ref>

==== Provisioning services ====
With regards to provisioning services, greater species diversity has the following benefits:
* Greater species diversity of plants increases fodder yield (synthesis of 271 experimental studies).<ref name="the-functional-role-of-producer-diversity">{{cite journal |last1=Cardinale |first1=Bradley J. |last2=Matulich |first2=Kristin L. |last3=Hooper |first3=David U. |last4=Byrnes |first4=Jarrett E. |last5=Duffy |first5=Emmett |last6=Gamfeldt |first6=Lars |last7=Balvanera |first7=Patricia |last8=O'Connor |first8=Mary I. |last9=Gonzalez |first9=Andrew |title=The functional role of producer diversity in ecosystems |journal=American Journal of Botany |date=March 2011 |volume=98 |issue=3 |pages=572–592 |doi=10.3732/ajb.1000364 |pmid=21613148 |bibcode=2011AmJB...98..572C |hdl=2027.42/141994 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
* Greater species diversity of plants (i.e. diversity within a single species) increases overall [[crop yield]] (synthesis of 575 experimental studies).<ref name="grain-yield-increase-in-cereal-variety-mixtures">{{cite journal|last=Kiaer|first=Lars P.|author2=Skovgaard, M. |author3=Østergård, Hanne|title=Grain yield increase in cereal variety mixtures: A meta-analysis of field trials|journal=Field Crops Research|date=1 December 2009|volume=114|issue=3|pages=361–373|doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2009.09.006|bibcode=2009FCrRe.114..361K }}</ref> Although another review of 100 experimental studies reported mixed evidence.<ref name="does-plant-diversity-benefit-agroecosystems">{{cite journal|last=Letourneau|first=Deborah K. |title=Does plant diversity benefit agroecosystems? A synthetic review|journal=[[Ecological Applications]]|date=1 January 2011|volume=21|issue=1|pages=9–21|doi=10.1890/09-2026.1|pmid=21516884|bibcode=2011EcoAp..21....9L }}</ref>
* Greater species diversity of trees increases overall [[wood production]] (synthesis of 53 experimental studies).<ref name="tree-growth-in-monocultures-and-mixed">{{cite journal|last=Piotto|first=Daniel|title=A meta-analysis comparing tree growth in monocultures and mixed plantations|journal=[[Forest Ecology and Management]]|date=1 March 2008|volume=255|issue=3–4|pages=781–786|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2007.09.065|bibcode=2008ForEM.255..781P }}</ref> However, there is not enough data to draw a conclusion about the effect of tree trait diversity on wood production.<ref name="diversity-loss-and-its-impact" />

==== Regulating services ====
With regards to regulating services, greater species diversity has the following benefits:

Greater species diversity
* of fish increases the stability of [[fisheries]] yield (synthesis of 8 observational studies)<ref name="diversity-loss-and-its-impact" />
* of plants increases [[carbon sequestration]], but note that this finding only relates to actual uptake of carbon dioxide and not long-term storage; synthesis of 479 experimental studies)<ref name="the-functional-role-of-producer-diversity" />
* of plants increases [[soil nutrient]] [[remineralization]] (synthesis of 103 experimental studies), increases soil organic matter (synthesis of 85 experimental studies) and decreases disease prevalence on plants (synthesis of 107 experimental studies)<ref name="plant-diversity-enhances-provision-of-ecosystem-services">{{cite journal |last1=Quijas |first1=Sandra |last2=Schmid |first2=Bernhard |last3=Balvanera |first3=Patricia |title=Plant diversity enhances provision of ecosystem services: A new synthesis |journal=Basic and Applied Ecology |date=November 2010 |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=582–593 |doi=10.1016/j.baae.2010.06.009 |bibcode=2010BApEc..11..582Q |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/39775/11/Quijas_etal_BAE10.pdf }}</ref>
* of natural pest enemies decreases herbivorous pest populations (data from two separate reviews; synthesis of 266 experimental and observational studies;<ref name="annual-review-ecology-evolution-systematics-vol-40">{{cite book |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=2zifbwAACAAJ|page=573}} |title=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics: Vol 40 2009 |date=1 January 2009 |publisher=Annual Reviews |isbn=978-0-8243-1440-8 |editor-last1=Futuyma |editor-first1=Douglas J. |location=Palo Alto, Calif. |pages=573–592 |editor-last2=Shaffer |editor-first2=H. Bradley |editor-last3=Simberloff |editor-first3=Daniel}}</ref> Synthesis of 18 observational studies.<ref name="functional-richness-and-ecosystem-services-bird-pred">{{cite journal |last=Philpott |first=Stacy M. |author-link=Stacy Philpott |author2=Soong, Oliver |author3=Lowenstein, Jacob H. |author4=Pulido, Astrid Luz |author5=Lopez, Diego Tobar |date=1 October 2009 |others=Flynn, Dan F. B.; DeClerck, Fabrice |title=Functional richness and ecosystem services: bird predation on arthropods in tropical agroecosystems |journal=Ecological Applications |volume=19 |issue=7 |pages=1858–1867 |bibcode=2009EcoAp..19.1858P |doi=10.1890/08-1928.1 |pmid=19831075 }}</ref><ref name="birds-as-predators-in-trop-agroforestry">{{cite journal |last1=Bael |first1=Sunshine A. Van |last2=Philpott |first2=Stacy M. |last3=Greenberg |first3=Russell |last4=Bichier |first4=Peter |last5=Barber |first5=Nicholas A. |last6=Mooney |first6=Kailen A. |last7=Gruner |first7=Daniel S. |title=Birds as Predators in Tropical Agroforestry Systems |journal=Ecology |date=April 2008 |volume=89 |issue=4 |pages=928–934 |doi=10.1890/06-1976.1 |pmid=18481517 |bibcode=2008Ecol...89..928V |hdl=1903/7873 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Although another review of 38 experimental studies found mixed support for this claim, suggesting that in cases where mutual intraguild predation occurs, a single predatory species is often more effective<ref name="influence-of-intraguild-predation">{{cite journal |last1=Vance-Chalcraft |first1=Heather D. |last2=Rosenheim |first2=Jay A. |last3=Vonesh |first3=James R. |last4=Osenberg |first4=Craig W. |last5=Sih |first5=Andrew |title=The Influence of Intraguild Predation on Prey Suppression and Prey Release: A Meta-Analysis |journal=Ecology |date=November 2007 |volume=88 |issue=11 |pages=2689–2696 |doi=10.1890/06-1869.1 |pmid=18051635 |bibcode=2007Ecol...88.2689V }}</ref>