Editing Bhakti (section)

== In other religions ==
[[File:Bodhi Tree Distant View - panoramio.jpg|thumb|The [[Bodhi Tree]] under which [[Gautama Buddha]] attained [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|Enlightenment]] has been a major site of Buddhist bhakti since the earliest period of Buddhism.]]

=== Buddhism ===
[[File:Foreigners at Sanchi Stupa I North Gateway.jpg|thumb|A relief on the Northern Gateway of [[Sanchi|Sanchi Stupa]] number 1 showing devotees and musicians venerating the [[stupa]], which contained Buddha relics.<ref name="RS441">"Musicians generally described as "Greeks" from the eastern gateway at Sanchi" in {{cite book |last1=Stoneman |first1=Richard |title=The Greek Experience of India: From Alexander to the Indo-Greeks |date=2019 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691185385 |pages=441–444, Fig. 15.6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8MFnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA441}}</ref>]]

{{Main|Buddhist devotion|Faith in Buddhism}}
<!--"Buddhist devotion#Definition" links here -->
Bhakti (''bhatti'' in [[Pali]]) has always been a common aspect of [[Buddhism]], where offerings, prostrations, chants, and individual or group prayers are made to the [[Buddha]] and ''[[bodhisattvas]]'',<ref name="swearer9">Donald Swearer (2003), ''Buddhism in the Modern World: Adaptations of an Ancient Tradition'' (Editors: Heine and Prebish), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195146981}}, pages 9-25.</ref><ref>Karen Pechelis (2011), The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies (Editor: Jessica Frazier), Bloomsbury, {{ISBN|978-1472511515}}, pages 109-112</ref> or to other [[Buddhist deities]].<ref name="child138">{{cite book|author=Louise Child|title=Tantric Buddhism and Altered States of Consciousness: Durkheim, Emotional Energy and Visions of the Consort |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yYDeCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT138 |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-04677-6|pages=138–139}}</ref> According to [[Karel Werner]] Buddhist bhakti "had its beginnings in the earliest days".<ref name="werner45">Karel Werner (1995), ''Love Divine: Studies in Bhakti and Devotional Mysticism,'' Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0700702350}}, pages 45-46</ref> Perhaps the earliest mention of the term bhatti in all Indic literature appears in the early Buddhist ''[[Theragatha]]'' (''Verses of the Elders'').<ref name=":4">Dayal, Dar (1970). ''The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature,'' p. 32. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</ref> As such, Har Dayal writes that, bhakti "was an integral part of the Buddhist ideal from the earliest times".<ref name=":4" /> John S. Strong writes that the central meaning of Indian Buddhist bhakti was "recollection of the Buddha" (Sanskrit: [[Buddhānusmṛti|buddhanusmrti]]).<ref name=":6">Strong, John S. (2017). ''The Legend and Cult of Upagupta: Sanskrit Buddhism in North India and Southeast Asia,'' p. 117. Princeton University Press.</ref>

One of the earliest form of Buddhist devotional practice was the early Buddhist tradition of worshiping the Buddha through the means of [[stupa]]s and bodily relics ([[Śarīra|sarira]]).<ref>Sukumar Dutt (1988). ''Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India: Their History and Their Contribution to Indian Culture,'' p. 184. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher.</ref> Later (after about the third century CE), devotion using Buddha images also became a very popular form of Buddha bhakti.<ref>Sukumar Dutt (1988). ''Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India: Their History and Their Contribution to Indian Culture,'' p. 191. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher.</ref>

Sri Lankan scholar Indumathie Karunaratna notes that the meaning of ''bhatti'' changed throughout Buddhist history.<ref name="ik435" /> In [[Early Buddhist schools|early Buddhist]] sources like the [[Theragatha|''Theragāthā'']],{{sfn|Nanayakkara|1966|p=678}} ''bhatti'' had the meaning of 'faithful adherence to the [Buddhist] religion', and was accompanied with knowledge. Later on, however, the term developed the meaning of an advanced form of emotional devotion. This sense of devotion was thus different than the early [[Faith in Buddhism|Buddhist view of faith]].{{sfn|Nanayakkara|1966|p=679}}

According to Sanath Nanayakkara, early Buddhist refuge and devotion, meant taking the Buddha as an ideal to live by, rather than the later sense of self-surrender.<!--p=680--> But already in the [[atthakatha|Commentary]] to the [[Abhidhamma]] text ''[[Puggalapaññatti]]'', it is mentioned that the Buddhist devotee should develop his ''saddhā'' until it becomes ''bhaddi'', a sense not mentioned in earlier texts and probably influenced by the Hindu idea of ''bhakti''.<!--p=679--> There are instances where commentator [[Buddhaghosa]] mentions taking refuge in the Buddha in the sense of mere adoration, indicating a historical shift in meaning.<!--Nanayakkara 680--> Similar developments in Buddhist devotion took place with regards to worshipping the Buddha's [[Śarīra|relics]] and [[Buddhist art|Buddha images]].<ref name=":2">Gokhale, Pradeep. "The Place of Bhakti in Buddhism", in ''Illuminating the Dharma: Buddhist Studies in Honour of Venerable Professor KL Dhammajoti'', Edited by Toshiichi Endo, Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, 2021.</ref>

The [[Mahāsāṃghika]] school of early Buddhism seems to have promoted devotional practice and bhakti to a high status and to have anchored this practice in the purity and radiance of the Buddha.<ref name=Pas1995>Pas, Julian F. (1995). ''Visions of Sukhavati: Shan-Tao's Commentary on the Kuan Wu-liang- Shou-Fo Ching'', pp. 26-30. Albany, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|0-7914-2520-7}}</ref> The ''[[Mahāvastu]]'', one of the few surviving Mahāsāṃghika texts, states:<blockquote>The purity of the Buddha is so great that the worship of the Exalted One is sufficient for the attainment of Nirvāna, and that one already acquires endless merit by merely walking round a stupa and worshipping it by means of floral offerings...from the Buddha’s smile, there radiate beams which illuminate the entire buddhafields.<ref name=Pas1995 /> </blockquote>

In later faith-oriented literature, such as the ''[[Avadana|Avadānas]],'' faith is given an important role in Buddhist doctrine. Nevertheless, faith (''śraddhā'') is discussed in different contexts than devotion (''bhakti''). ''Bhakti'' is often used disparagingly to describe acts of worship to deities, often seen as ineffective and improper for a Buddhist. Also, ''bhakti'' is clearly connected with a person as an object, whereas ''śraddhā'' is less connected with a person, and is more connected with truthfulness and truth. Śraddhā focuses on ideas such as the working of [[karma (Buddhism)|karma]] and [[merit transfer]].<ref name="Rotman 2008">{{cite book |last1=Rotman |first1=Andy |title=Thus Have I Seen: Visualizing Faith in Early Indian Buddhism |date=2008 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-045117-2 |chapter=Getting and Giving |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a-0JCAAAQBAJ}}</ref> One source for Indian Buddhist devotion is the ''[[Divyavadana|Divyāvadāna]]'', which focuses on the vast amount of [[Merit (Buddhism)|merit]] (''{{IAST|puṇya}}'') that is generated by making offerings to Buddhas, [[stupa]]s and other [[Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India|Buddhist holy sites]].<ref name="princeton">{{cite book |last1=Buswell, Jr. |first1=Robert |title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |last2=Lopez, Jr. |first2=Donald S. |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=9781400848058 |page=262 |authorlink1=Robert Buswell Jr. |authorlink2=Donald S. Lopez, Jr.}}</ref>

This text contrasts faith in the Buddha with bhakti for mundane deities (such as Hindu gods), and in this case, it sees bhakti as something for those who are less developed spiritually.<ref name=":5">Rotman, Andy (2008). ''Thus Have I Seen: Visualizing Faith in Early Indian Buddhism,'' p. 245. Oxford University Press, USA.</ref> However, in other passages, the term is used positively, and in one story, the sage [[Upagupta]] says to the demon [[Mara (demon)|Mara]]:<blockquote>Even a very small bit of bhakti [toward the Buddha] offers nirvana to the wise as a result. In short, the wicked things that you [Māra] did here to the Sage, when your mind was blind with delusion, all of these have been washed away by the copious waters of [[Faith in Buddhism|śraddhā]] that have entered your heart.

- ''Divyāvadāna'' 360.1–4 [''Aśokāvadana'' 22.7-9] <ref>Sanskrit: svalpāpi hy atra bhaktir bhavati matimatāṃ nirvāṇaphaladā  saṃkṣepād yat kṛtam. te vṛjinam iha muner mohāndhamanasā sarvaṃ prakṣālitaṃ tat tava hṛdaye gataiḥ śraddhāmbuvisaraiḥ</ref><ref name=":5" /> </blockquote>In the 11th century, the Bengali Buddhist scholar Rāmancandra Kavibhārati composed a work on Buddhist bhakti called the ''Bhakti Śataka.''<ref>Keune, Jon (2021). ''Shared Devotion, Shared Food: Equality and the Bhakti-caste Question in Western India,'' p. 49. Oxford University Press.</ref>

Today, affective devotion remains an important part of Buddhist practice, even in Theravada Buddhism. According to Winston King, a scholar on [[Theravada|Theravāda]] in [[Myanmar]], "warm, personalized, emotional" ''bhakti'' has been a part of the [[Burmese Buddhism|Burmese Buddhist]] tradition apart from the monastic and lay intellectuals.<ref name="King1964p173">{{cite book |author=Winston Lee King |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5_dCAAAAIAAJ |title=A thousand lives away: Buddhism in contemporary Burma |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1964 |isbn=9780674887107 |pages=173–176}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=1981 |title=Bhakti in Early Buddhism |encyclopedia=Tradition and modernity in Bhakti movements |publisher=[[Brill (publisher)|Brill Archive]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kLs3AAAAIAAJ |editor-last=Lele |editor-first=J |volume=31 |isbn=978-9004063709 |last1=Gokhale |first1=Balkrishna Govind |author-link=Balkrishna Govind Gokhale}}</ref> The [[Buddha]] is treasured by the everyday devout Buddhists, just like Catholics treasure [[Jesus]]. The orthodox teachers tend to restrain the devotion to the Buddha, but to the devout Buddhist populace, "a very deeply devotional quality" was and remains a part of the actual practice. This is observable, states King, in "multitudes of [[Burmese pagoda|Pagoda]] worshippers of the Buddha images" and the offerings they make before the image and nowhere else.<ref name="King1964p173" />

==== In Mahayana Buddhism ====
[[file:An elderly Tibetan women holding a prayer wheel on Lhasa, Barkhor.jpg|thumb|Tibet: An elderly Tibetan woman holding a [[prayer wheel]] on the [[Lhasa|Lhasa's]] pilgrimage circuit of Barkhor. The Barkhor, a quadrangle of streets that surrounds the [[Jokhang|Jokhang Temple]], is both the spiritual heart of the holy city and the main commercial district for Tibetans.]]

[[File:Prayers in front of Jokhang temple.jpg|thumb|''Bhakti'' (''{{langx|pi|bhatti}}''<ref name=karunaratna435>{{cite encyclopedia|editor1-last=Malalasekera|editor1-first=Gunapala Piyasena|editor1-link=G. P. Malalasekera|first=Indumathie|last=Karunaratna|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Buddhism|title=Devotion|date=2000|volume=IV|publisher=Government of Ceylon|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/283214333/Enceylopaedia-of-Buddhism-Vol-IV|page=435}}</ref>) at a Buddhist temple, Tibet.]]

[[file:Longshan Temple (40842755631).jpg|thumb|Devotees chanting before an image of [[Guanyin]] (a feminine form of [[Avalokiteśvara|Avalokiteshvara]]), at [[Longshan Temple metro station|Longshan Temple]], [[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]].]]

[[file:Asan bajan wk.jpg|thumb|Nepalese Buddhists participating in a [[Gunla Bajan]] (a form of Nepalese Buddhist devotional song) procession in [[Kathmandu]], [[Nepal]].]]
A rich devotionalism developed in Indian [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]] and it can be found in the veneration of the transcendent Buddha [[Amitabha]] of [[Pure Land Buddhism]] and of bodhisattvas like [[Manjushri|Mañjusri]], [[Avalokiteśvara|Avalokiteshvara]] (known as [[Guanyin]] in East Asia and Chenrezig in Tibetan) and the goddess [[Tara (Buddhism)|Tara]].<ref>Dayal, Dar (1970). ''The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature,'' p. 36. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</ref><ref name="ik435">{{cite encyclopedia|editor1-last=Malalasekera|editor1-first=Gunapala Piyasena|editor1-link=G. P. Malalasekera|first=Indumathie|last=Karunaratna|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Buddhism|title=Devotion|date=2000|volume=IV|publisher=Government of Ceylon|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/283214333/Enceylopaedia-of-Buddhism-Vol-IV|pages=435–7}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/early%20buddhist%20theory%20of%20knowledge_jayatilleke.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150911084454/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Early%20Buddhist%20Theory%20of%20Knowledge_Jayatilleke.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2015|last1=Jayatilleke|first1=K.N.|author-link1=K.N. Jayatilleke|title=Early Buddhist theory of knowledge|date=1963|publisher=[[George Allen & Unwin]]|isbn=978-1-134-54287-1|page=384}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Mahayana sources like the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'' describe the Buddha as the loving father of all beings, and exhorts all Buddhists to worship him.<ref>Dayal, Dar (1970). ''The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature,'' p. 34. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</ref>

Mahayana bhakti also led to the rise of temples which were focused on housing a central Buddha image, something which became the norm during the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta period]].<ref name=":3">Sukumar Dutt (1988). ''Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India: Their History and Their Contribution to Indian Culture,'' pp. 193-94. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher.</ref> Gupta era Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism stressed bhakti towards the Buddha as a central virtue and liberally made use of Buddha images, which are often accompanied by attendant bodhisattvas.<ref name=":3" />

These new developments in Buddhist bhakti may have been influenced by the pan-Indian [[bhakti movement]], and indeed, many Gupta monarchs, who were devoted to the [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] [[Bhagavata]] religion also supported Buddhist temples and founded monasteries (including great ones like [[Nalanda mahavihara|Nalanda]]).<ref>Sukumar Dutt (1988). ''Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India: Their History and Their Contribution to Indian Culture,'' p. 180, 197. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher.</ref> Buddhists were in competition with the Hindu religions of the time, like the Bhagavatas and Shaivas, and they developed Buddhist bhakti focused on the Buddhas and bodhisattvas in this religious environment.<ref>Dayal, Dar (1970). ''The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature,'' p. 38. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</ref>

Mahāyāna interprets [[Buddhahood]] as a transcendent and eternal state (as found in the ''[[Lotus Sutra|Lotus Suta]]'') and is also equated with the ultimate reality ([[Dharmakāya|Dharmakaya]]).<ref name=":2" /> Bodhisattvas were also considered to be extremely powerful divinities that could grant boons and rescue people from danger.<ref name=":0" /> This shift towards devotion to a transcendent being in later Buddhism has been seen as being similar to [[Theism|theistic]] forms of Hindu bhakti.<!--p=681-->{{sfn|Nanayakkara|1966|pp=679–81}}<ref name=":1">Norio Sekido, [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ibk1952/41/1/41_1_533/_pdf ''Bhakti and Sraddha''.] Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies Vol. 41, No. 1, December 1992</ref> Mahayana Buddhist bhakti was also sometimes aimed at a [[Mahayana sutras|Mahayana sutra]], such as the ''[[Prajnaparamita|Prajñaparamita sutra]]'' and the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]''.<ref>Apple, James B. "Prajñaparamita", in ''Encyclopedia of Indian Religions,'' ed. by Arvind Sharma (2019). Springer.</ref><ref>Williams, Paul (2009). ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' 2nd edition, p. 145. Routledge.</ref>

Some sources, like the ''[[Sukhāvatīvyūhasūtra]]'', even state that through devotion to the Buddha Amitabha one can attain rebirth in his [[Pure land|Pure Land]] and here one can be purified of all negative karma and eventually attain Buddhahood. As such, they make Buddha bhakti a central element of their [[soteriology]]. Bhakti in these sutras supersedes the making of good karma and cultivation of the path in favor of devotion to the Buddha Amitabha who can lead one to liberation in the Pure Land.<ref name=":2" /> This eventually came to be seen as its own path to liberation, its own ''mārga'', often called the "easy path". A text attributed to [[Nagarjuna]], the *''Dasabhumikavibhāsā'' (Chinese: ''Shí zhù pípóshā lùn'' 十住毘婆沙論, T.1521) teaches the "easy practice" which is simply being constantly mindful of the Buddhas.<ref>Williams, Paul (2008). ''Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations 2nd Edition,'' p. 244. Routledge.</ref>

All of these ideas became the foundation for the later development of East Asian [[Pure Land Buddhism]].

Mahayana Buddhist bhakti is grounded in the Mahayana ideals of the [[bodhisattva]], [[bodhicitta]] (the mind aimed at awakening for the benefit of all beings) and skillful means ([[upaya]]).<ref name=":0">Lewis, Todd T. (2000). ''Popular Buddhist Texts from Nepal: Narratives and Rituals of Newar Buddhism,'' p. 9. SUNY Press.</ref> Mahayana bhakti practices include various forms of ritual [[Puja (Hinduism)|pujas]] and prayers. The Mahayana form of the practice of [[Buddhānusmṛti]] (remembering the Buddha) could include visualization practices and recitation of the names of a Buddha or bodhisattva (as in ''[[nianfo]]'') was also a common method of devotional practice taught in numerous Indian sources.<ref name=":1" />

One common puja and prayer format in Indian Mahayana was the "seven part worship" (''saptāṇgapūjā'' or ''saptavidhā anuttarapūjā'').<ref>Dayal, Dar (1970). ''The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature,'' p. 54. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</ref> This often included various offerings of flowers, food, scents, and music.<ref>Sukumar Dutt (1988). ''Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India: Their History and Their Contribution to Indian Culture,'' p. 196. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher.</ref> This ritual form is visible in the works of [[Shantideva]] (8th century) and includes:<ref>Dayal, Dar (1970). ''The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature,'' pp. 54-57. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</ref>

* ''Vandana'' (obeisance, bowing)
* ''Puja'' (ritual worship with offerings etc.)
* ''Sarana-gamana'' (going for [[Refuge (Buddhism)|refuge]])
* ''Papadesana'' (confession of bad deeds)
* ''Punyanumodana'' (rejoicing in merit of the good deeds of oneself and others)
* ''Adhyesana'' (prayer, entreaty) and ''yacana'' (supplication) – request to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas to continue preaching Dharma
* ''Atmabhavadi-parityagah'' (surrender) and ''[[Transfer of merit|pariṇāmanā]]'' (the transfer of one's Merit to the welfare of others)

Devotion to the Buddhas and bodhisattvas continued to be a major part of the later [[Vajrayana]] Buddhist traditions of tantra.<ref name=":0" /> Vajrayana Buddhism also added another form of bhakti to their teachings: guru bhakti (i.e. [[guru yoga]]), devotion towards the tantric [[guru]]. In India, various forms of devotion were practiced, including tantric songs of realization called ''[[Songs of realization|Charyagitis]].'' These first arose in the so called called ''[[Charyapada]]s'' of medieval Bengali [[Sahaja|Sahajiya]] Buddhism''.''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Barua |first=Dr. Rajen |title=Buddhism and Bhakti |url=https://www.boloji.com/articles/50353/buddhism-and-bhakti |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=www.boloji.com}}</ref>

As such, both in [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and [[East Asian Buddhism]], there remains a strong tradition of devotional veneration of various Buddhas and bodhisattvas (which includes making offerings and chanting their names or [[mantra]]s), and this is one of the most popular forms of lay Buddhist practice.<ref name="child138" />

=== Jainism ===
Bhakti has been a prevalent ancient practice in various Jaina sects, wherein learned [[Tirthankara]] (''Jina'') and human ''gurus'' have been venerated with offerings, songs and [[Aarti|Āratī]] prayers.<ref name=johncort>John Cort, Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN, pages 64-68, 86-90, 100-112</ref>

Jainism participated in the Bhakti school of medieval India, and has a rich tradition of bhakti literature (''stavan'') though these have been less studied than those of the Hindu tradition.<ref>{{cite book|author=M. Whitney Kelting|title=Singing to the Jinas: Jain Laywomen, Mandal Singing, and the Negotiations of Jain Devotion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=elcn1IEJ3CEC |year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803211-3|pages=87–88}}</ref> The ''Avasyaka sutra'' of Jains includes, among ethical duties for the devotee, the recitation of "hymns of praise to the Tirthankaras" as the second Obligatory Action. It explains this ''bhakti'' as one of the means to destroy negative karma. According to [[Paul Dundas]], such textual references to devotional activity suggests that ''bhakti'' was a necessary part of Jainism from an early period.<ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Dundas|title=The Jains|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |year= 2003|publisher =Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-26605-5|pages= 170–171}}</ref>

According to [[Jeffery D. Long]], along with its strong focus on ethics and ascetic practices, the religiosity in Jainism has had a strong tradition of ''bhakti'' or devotion just like their Hindu counterparts. The Jain community built ornate temples and prided in public devotion for its fordmakers, saints and teachers. ''Abhisekha'', festival prayers, community recitals and ''Murti puja'' (rituals before an image) are examples of integrated bhakti in Jain practice. Some Jain monks, however, reject Bhakti.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jeffery D Long|title=Jainism: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I3gAAwAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-392-6|pages=111–114}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Sherry Fohr|title=Jainism: A Guide for the Perplexed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HMXuBQAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4742-2755-1|pages=91–102}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Lisa Owen|title=Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vHK2WE8xAzYC |year=2012|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-20629-8|pages=xii, 2, 12–13, 117–126}}</ref>