Editing Balhae (section)

===Later history===
====Goryeo====
Though Balhae was lost, a great portion of the royalty and aristocracy fled to Goryeo, including [[Dae Gwang-hyeon]], the last [[crown prince]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=이상각|script-title=ko:고려사 - 열정과 자존의 오백년|date=2014|publisher=들녘|isbn=9791159250248|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LonnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT25|access-date=23 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=(2) 건국―호족들과의 제휴|url=http://contents.history.go.kr/front/nh/view.do?levelId=nh_011_0040_0030_0020_0020|website=우리역사넷|publisher=[[National Institute of Korean History]]|access-date=23 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref> They were granted land and the crown prince was given the family name Wang ({{Korean|hangul=왕|hanja=王|labels=no}}), the royal family name of the Goryeo dynasty, and included in the royal household by [[Wang Geon]], who was crowned as Taejo of Goryeo. Koreans believe Goryeo thus unified the two successor nations of Goguryeo.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lee|first1=Ki-Baik|title=A New History of Korea|date=1984|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=978-0674615762|page=103}} "When Parhae perished at the hands of the Khitan around this same time, much of its ruling class, who were of Koguryŏ descent, fled to Koryŏ. Wang Kŏn warmly welcomed them and generously gave them land. Along with bestowing the name Wang Kye ("Successor of the Royal Wang") on the Parhae crown prince, Tae Kwang-hyŏn, Wang Kŏn entered his name in the royal household register, thus clearly conveying the idea that they belonged to the same lineage, and also had rituals performed in honor of his progenitor. Thus Koryŏ achieved a true national unification that embraced not only the Later Three Kingdoms but even survivors of Koguryŏ lineage from the Parhae kingdom."</ref> Some other members of the Balhae royalty took the surname Tae ({{Korean|hangul=태|hanja=太|labels=no}}).<ref name="Lee Ki-baik page 88–89" />  According to the ''Goryeosa jeolyo'', the Balhae refugees who accompanied the crown prince numbered in the tens of thousands of households.<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ko:발해 유민 포섭 |url=http://contents.history.go.kr/front/hm/view.do?treeId=010401&tabId=01&levelId=hm_045_0020 |website=우리역사넷 |publisher=[[National Institute of Korean History]] |access-date=13 March 2019 |language=ko}}</ref> According to Alexander Kim, Goryeo's statistical information shows that more than 100,000 Balhae people moved to Goryeo at different points in time.{{sfn|Kim|2019|p=108}} As descendants of Goguryeo, the Balhae people and the Goryeo dynasts were related.{{sfn|Rossabi|1983|p=154}} Taejo of Goryeo felt a strong familial kinship with Balhae, calling it his "relative country" and "married country",<ref name="박종기">{{cite book |last1=박종기 |script-title=ko:고려사의 재발견: 한반도 역사상 가장 개방적이고 역동적인 500년 고려 역사를 만나다 |date=2015 |publisher=휴머니스트 |isbn=9788958629023 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qn6TCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT66 |access-date=13 March 2019 |language=ko |chapter=신화와 전설에 담긴 고려 왕실의 역사}}</ref> and protected the Balhae refugees.{{sfn|Rossabi|1983|p=323}} This was in stark contrast to Later Silla, which had endured a hostile relationship with Balhae.<ref>{{cite web |title=Parhae {{!}} historical state, China and Korea |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Parhae |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |access-date=13 March 2019 |language=en}}</ref> Taejo displayed strong animosity toward the Khitans who had destroyed Balhae. The Liao dynasty sent 30 envoys with 50 camels as a gift in 942, but Taejo exiled the envoys to an island and starved the camels under a bridge, in what is known as the "Manbu Bridge Incident".<ref name="이기환">{{cite web |last1=이기환 |date=22 June 2015 |title= |script-title=ko:[여적]태조 왕건이 낙타를 굶겨죽인 까닭 |trans-title=[Editorial] The Reason Why Taejo Wang Geon Starved a Camel to Death |url=http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?artid=201506221730411 |access-date=13 March 2019 |website=[[Kyunghyang Shinmun]] |language=ko}}</ref><ref name="거란의 고려침입">{{cite web |script-title=ko:거란의 고려침입 |url=http://contents.history.go.kr/front/kc/main.do?levelId=kc_i200300 |website=한국사 연대기 |publisher=[[National Institute of Korean History]] |access-date=22 April 2019 |language=ko}}</ref> Taejo proposed to [[Shi Jingtang|Gaozu]] of [[Later Jin (Five Dynasties)|Later Jin]] that they attack the Khitans in retribution for Balhae, according to the ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]''.<ref name="박종기" /> Furthermore, in his ''Ten Injunctions'' to his descendants, he stated that the Khitans are "savage beasts" and should be guarded against.<ref name="이기환" />{{sfn|Lee|2010|p=264}} Khitan conquest of Balhae resulted in Goryeo's prolonged hostility towards the Khitan Empire.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?artid=201506221730411|script-title=ko:태조 왕건이 낙타를 굶겨죽인 까닭 |trans-title=Why King Taiso wasted camels |author=Lee Ki Hwan |work=Khan.co |date=2015 |language=ko}}</ref>

Exodus en masse on part from the Balhae refugees would continue on at least until the early 12th century during the reign of King Yejong, according to Korean scholars.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jeon |first1=Young-Joon |title=10~12세기 고려의 渤海難民 수용과 주변국 同化政策* |trans-title=A Study on Korea's Accommodation of the Refugees from the Collapsed Kingdom of Balhae and Policy of Assimilating the Neighboring Nations in 10th~12th Centuries |url=http://scholar.dkyobobook.co.kr/builderDownload.laf?barcode=4010028143027&artId=10576093&gb=view&rePdf=view |journal=Society for Jeju Studies |date=28 February 2021 |volume=55 |pages=27–53 |doi=10.47520/jjs.2021.55.27 |s2cid=233796106 |access-date=8 March 2022 |archive-date=6 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206130722/http://scholar.dkyobobook.co.kr/builderDownload.laf?barcode=4010028143027&artId=10576093&gb=view&rePdf=view |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{rp|32–33}}{{efn|For example, 3,000 Balhae households came to Goryeo in 938.<ref>{{cite web |last1=노태돈 |script-title=ko:정안국(定安國) |url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Item/E0050528 |website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]] |access-date=13 March 2019 |language=ko}}</ref>}} Due to this constant massive influx of Balhae refugees, the Goguryeo population is speculated to have become dominant<ref>{{Cite web|script-title=ko:후삼국통일(後三國統一)|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/SearchNavi?keyword=%ED%9B%84%EC%82%BC%EA%B5%AD%ED%86%B5%EC%9D%BC&ridx=0&tot=575|access-date=2021-12-06|website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|script-title=ko:한성(漢城)|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/SearchNavi?keyword=%ED%95%9C%EC%84%B1&ridx=1&tot=311|access-date=2021-12-06|website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]}}</ref> in proportion compared to their Silla and Baekje counterparts that have experienced devastating war and political strife<ref>{{Cite web|script-title=ko:김헌창의 난(金憲昌─亂)|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/SearchNavi?keyword=%EA%B9%80%ED%97%8C%EC%B0%BD%EC%9D%98%20%EB%82%9C&ridx=0&tot=3|access-date=2021-12-06|website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|script-title=ko:원종 애노의 난(元宗哀奴─亂)|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/SearchNavi?keyword=%EC%95%A0%EB%85%B8%EC%9D%98%20%EB%82%9C&ridx=0&tot=1|access-date=2021-12-06|website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|script-title=ko:적고적(赤袴賊)|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/SearchNavi?keyword=%EC%A0%81%EA%B3%A0%EC%A0%81&ridx=0&tot=1|access-date=2021-12-06|website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]}}</ref> since the advent of the Later Three Kingdoms. Later Baekje fared only little better than Later Silla before its fall in 936. Meanwhile, of the three capitals of Goryeo, two were Kaesong and Pyeongyang which were initially populated by Goguryeoic settlers from the Paeseo Region ({{Korean|hangul=패서|hanja=浿西|labels=no}}) and Balhae.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kang|first=Ok-yeop|title=高麗時代의 西京制度 (The Seokyeong Policy of Goryeo)|url=http://db.history.go.kr/download.do?levelId=kn_092_0040&fileName=kn_092_0040.pdf|journal=[[Ewha Womans University]]|pages=100}}</ref>

[[Pamela Kyle Crossley|Crossley]] believes that according to Goryeo records, Balhae refugees only arrived in groups of a few hundred to a few thousand. She suggests that the total number could not be more than 100,000, while millions remained in Liao-controlled territories. According to Crossley, it is also unclear whether they stayed, went back to Balhae, or moved on elsewhere like China or Japan.<ref name="Crossley 2016"/> According to Kim, between the 10th and 11th centuries, 30,000 Balhae families (more than 100,000 people) immigrated to Goryeo, 94,000 local families (470,000 inhabitants) were deported by the Liao, and only 20,000 Balhae families lived in the former territories of Balhae, a significantly smaller figure than those that immigrated to Goryeo.{{sfn|Kim|2019|p=108, 110}} Korean historians generally estimate that approximately 100,000 to 200,000 fled from Balhae to Goryeo.<ref>{{cite book |last1=김 |first1=위현 |title=渤海遺民의 再建運動 : 後渤海와 大渤海}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=나 |first1=영남 |title=《요·금시대 이민족 지배와 발해인》. 외대 역사문화 연구총서 |date=2017 |publisher=History and Culture Research Series at the University of Foreign Studies}}</ref> Historian Professor Park Jong-gi estimated that 120,600 people fled from Balhae to Goryeo, and by themselves comprised approximately 6.3% of early Goryeo's roughly 2 million inhabitants.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lee |first1=Sang-Do |script-title=ko:[평화칼럼] 발해 유민(遺民)과 꼬마 난민(難民) '쿠르디' |url=http://m.cpbc.co.kr/paper/view.php?cid=598022&path=201510 |website=Catholic Peace Newspaper |access-date=8 February 2023}}</ref>

According to Kim, many Balhae refugees fled to Goryeo due to pro-Balhae policies during the mid 9th century. In the first few decades after Balhae's fall, Balhae refugees were welcomed by Goryeo. However, it seems few Balhae refugees retained high positions in Goryeo as service in the Khitan administration offered more benefits. Goryeo annals contain only six names of high-ranking officials who were of Balhae origin. From 1029 to 1030, the Khitan Administration was rocked by a rebellion by Balhae people after the government tried raising taxes on them. The leader of the rebellion was the Liao general [[Da Yanlin]], a 7th generation descendant of the founder of Balhae. He arrested and killed Khitan leaders and proclaimed the establishment of a new dynasty, [[Xingliao|Xing Liao]]. He sent an ambassador to Goryeo requesting military support. Goryeo sent some military troops against the Liao but the Khitans repelled them and expelled the Goryeo army. Some of Goryeo's officers sought further confrontation with the Liao, but the Goryeo diplomatic corps and nobility asked the Goryeo king to exercise caution. The Goryeo king decided to abandon military activities against the Liao. Despite this, Balhae people continued to send missions to Goryeo requesting assistance. The last mission, led by Lee Kwang Rok, arrived after the destruction of the state, and Kim considers this group as refugees, not members of an ambassadorial mission. Kim believes that in the 11th century, Balhae people under the Liao started viewing Goryeo as a hostile state in which the Balhae people lacked support.{{sfn|Kim|2019|p=109-1010}}

====Liao dynasty====
The Balhae people played a pivotal role in the politics, literature, and society of northern China under the Liao and Jin dynasties. After the dissolution of Balhae by the Khitan empire, the term "Bohai" was used through the fourteenth century to denote a subset of the populations of the Liao, Jin, and [[Mongol Empire|Mongol empire]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jesse D |first1=Sloane |title=Mapping a Stateless Nation: "Bohai" Identity in the Twelfth to Fourteenth Centuries |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/611400 |journal=Journal of Song-Yuan Studies|year=2014 |volume=44 |pages=365–403 |doi=10.1353/sys.2014.0003 |s2cid=164130734 }}</ref> The Liao Eastern Capital (Dongjing, modern-day [[Liaoyang]], [[Liaoning]]) served as a base for monitoring the former Balhae territories. The city's residents, over 40,000 in early tenth century, were primarily Balhae, according to a figure cited by Pamela Crossley. [[Dae Inseon]] (Da Yinzhuan), the last Balhae king, and other members of the former royal lineage still held considerable authority in [[Dongdan Kingdom|Dongdan]] and the Eastern Capital after Balhae's fall. Some Balhae elites, on the other hand, were integrated into the Liao aristocracy and often changed their personal identities dramatically.<ref name="Crossley 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Crossley |first1=Pamela Kyle |title=Bohai/Parhae Identity and the Coherence of Dan gur under the Kitan/Liao Empire |journal=International Journal of Korean History |date=2016 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=11–44 |doi=10.22372/ijkh.2016.21.1.11|doi-access=free }}</ref>

According to Wittfogel and Feng, an undated Liao census puts the number of Balhae households in Liaoyang at around 100,000, which would be around half a million individuals.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wittfogel |first1=Karl August |last2=Feng |first2=Chia-Sheng |title=History of Chinese Society: Liao |page=56 }}</ref>{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=390}}

In the summer of 1029, a distant descendant of Balhae royalty, [[Da Yanlin]], rebelled at the Eastern Capital. He imprisoned minister Xiao Xiaoxian and his wife, killed the tax commissioners and chief military commander, and declared his own Xing Liao dynasty (興遼國/흥료국). He requested aid from Goryeo, who sent forces against Liao only to be repelled. Further ambassadors were sent by Xing Liao to Goryeo seeking aid but Goryeo refused to help them owing to the advice of nobles and scholars to the Goryeo king. Other Balhae people serving in the Liao military also refused to join Xing Liao. Four groups of ambassadors were sent but the last group remained in Goryeo rather than return. Instead only a handful of [[Jurchens]] joined his regime. Many participants of the rebellion probably realized the weakness of the new dynasty and fled to Goryeo before its collapse.{{sfn|Kim|2019|p=110}} A year later, one of Da Yanlin's officers betrayed him and opened the Eastern Capital's gates to the Khitans. His short lived dynasty came to an end. The old Balhae nobility were resettled near the Supreme Capital while others fled to Goryeo.{{sfn|Twitchett|1994|p=113-114}} In 1114, Balhae descendants took advantage of the Jurchen-Khitan war and rebelled. They defeated Khitan armies twice before they were destroyed.{{sfn|Kim|2011|p=287}} In 1116 another rebellion occurred at the Eastern Capital when a Balhae officer named Gao Yongchang declared himself emperor of the Yuan dynasty and requested aid from the Jin. Liao troops sent to quash the rebellion were themselves led by those of Balhae descent.{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=370}} The Jin relief troops to Yuan easily repulsed the Liao troops but then turned on the Balhae rebels and killed Gao Yongchang.{{sfn|Twitchett|1994|p=143-144}}

The distinction between Balhae and Jurchen rebellions was not always clear to the Liao. In the 1117 epitaph of an officer who died while fighting against Jurchens in 1114, the Balhae and Jurchens were mentioned in connection to each other and placed within a similar category.{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=372}}

====Jin dynasty====
The Khitans themselves eventually succumbed to the [[Jurchen people]], the descendants of the Mohe, who founded the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]]. Jurchen proclamations emphasized the common descent of the Balhae and Jurchens from the seven Wuji (勿吉) tribes. The Jin sent two Balhae representatives to recruit "people from their home area" while bearing a message that "The Jurchen and Bohai are originally of the same family; as we rise in arms to smite the wicked, [harm] will not unjustly reach the innocent."{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=373}} The fourth, fifth and seventh emperors of Jin were mothered by Balhae consorts.{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=381}} Nevertheless, the 13th century census of Northern China by the Mongols distinguished Balhae people who belonged to the Khitan Empire from other ethnic groups such as Goryeo, Khitans and Jurchens.<ref name="Hong Won-tak page 80-110">Hong Won-tak. "''Liao and Jin: After Khitan and Xianbei in West Manchuria, Jurchen in Eastern Manchuria appeared''" East Asian History: Distortion and Correcting, page 80-110. Seoul: Gudara, 2012.</ref>

A Song observer notes that during the Liao era, Balhae people were not employed in the government, as a result they were the first to defect to the Jin.{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=376}} The call for Balhae defectors was met with significant success. Aguda was advised by a Balhae man named Yang Pu who aided him in establishing an imperial court. An 1125 embassy noted that Jin protocol officers included Khitans, Jurchens, as well as Balhae. They all spoke Chinese.{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=373}} A descendant of the Balhae royal family, Da Gao (1086–1153), served in the Jin army and was given command of eight Balhae battalions in the war against the [[Song dynasty]]. One Balhae commander, Guo Yaoshi (active 1116–1132) fought in the Liao, Jin, and Song armies at one point or another.{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=375}} The Balhae played a critical role in supporting [[Emperor Shizong of Jin]]'s accession to the throne.{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=383}}

Families of Balhae descent were able to rise high in the Jin hierarchy, including Zhang Rulin (d. 1190) and Zhang Rubi (d. 1187), who were key advisers of Emperor Shizong, and Li Yin (''jinshi'' 1194, d. 1214), who died fighting against the [[Mongols]]. Balhae descendants also participated with success in the Jin imperial examinations. Many Balhae literati-officials such as Gao Kan (d. 1167), Gao Xian (''jinshi'' 1203), Zhang Rulin, Zhang Runeng, Zhang Ruwei (fl. 1150), Zhang Rufang, and Wang Tingyun (1151–1202) were entrusted as arbiters of culture and cultivated taste.{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=384-385}} Wang Tingyun's family received literary distinctions. His eldest daughter became a [[Daoist]] priestess, named Congqing, and was a poet at the imperial court. Intermarriage between Balhae civil elites in the Jin dynasty was common. In 1190, Wang Ji identified two families he encountered in Liaodong as Balhae. Writing after the fall of the Jin dynasty in 1234, Liu Qi identified the military commander Li Ying as a "Bohai man of Liaodong."{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=386}}

There were still limitations on Balhae people in the Jin dynasty. In 1136, the Jurchen official Wanyan Puluhu revoked the pardon of a man when his origin was determined to be Balhae. Policies to restrain and weaken Balhae were increased over time. In 1140, an edict abolished Han Chinese and Balhae hereditary military garrisons but not [[Kumo Xi]] and Khitan garrisons. The Jin government also targeted the Balhae population for relocation. Over the years, groups of Balhae who were once moved outside to areas near the Liao supreme or central capital regions were resettled east of the [[Taihang Mountains]], which was completed by 1141. Another relocation south of [[Zhongdu]] was planned in 1149, but the Balhae court attendant Gao Shouxing protested to [[Empress Daoping]], who told the emperor, resulting in the beating and death of the two officials planning the relocation.{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=381}} A substantial Jin military presence was bought to Liaodong in which as many as thirty Jurchen meng'an units (''meng'an'' literally means ''one thousand'' or units composed of one thousand soldiers) and the families of the retinues were moved to garrisons in the Eastern Capital Circuit. The southward migration of Jurchens, especially Jurchen aristocrats, may have contributed to a decline of people who identified as Balhae.{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=389-390}} In 1177, a decree was passed to abolish the "old Bohai custom" of marriage through mock abduction. Although the Balhae experienced less restrictions under the Jin, there was also less emphasis on Balhae as a distinct group. During the later Jin era, the strong association between Balhae and Liaodong declined as Liaodong became dominated by other identities.{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=388-389}}

As Balhae descendants became firmly incorporated into the apparatus of the Jurchen-led state, many individual Balhae-descended officials willingly chose to self-identify as Chinese. In 1135, Nansali was chosen as an emissary to Goryeo, for which he changed his name to the Sinitic Wang Zheng. Wang Tingyun also invented a genealogy record on his epitaph tracing his lineage to [[Taiyuan]] rather than Liaodong. The epitaph acknowledges that his most recent ancestors were in the employ of Balhae but added that they only "lived dispersed among the eastern barbarians", rejecting his Balhae identity. The practice of inventing fictitious genealogies to hide ancestry outside of the "Central Territories" was widespread from Song times onward.{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=390-391}}

====Mongol Empire====
The term "Balhae" became noticeably less prevalent under the rule of the [[Mongol Empire]]. There is no trace of Balhae descendants from the defunct Jin dynasty and no epitaphs from the Mongol era claim a Balhae identity.{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=396-397}} Balhae was only used as a toponym in the early 14th century and Balhae disappeared entirely from historical sources by the late 14th century.{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=396-398}} Near the end of Mongol rule, Tao Zongyi (c. 1316–1402) put Balhae alongside Khitan and Jurchen under a subcategory within [[Hanren]], which is not surprising given that most of them at the time of the Mongol conquest were literati, officials, or attachments to the Jin bureaucracy. Many chose to use Chinese style names, similar to Jurchens, probably for inclusion in the Hanren (Northern Chinese) category under the Mongol hierarchy, rather than the inferior fourth category, ''Nanren'' (Southern Chinese).{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=392-394}} Aside from legal references to the ''Taihe Code'' of the Jin dynasty, the term "Balhae" is absent from the Yuan legal compendium.{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=396-397}} The referenced passages have to do with limitations on levirate marriage for Han and Balhae and restrictions on marriage during mourning.{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=397}}

Some Balhae adopted Mongol or [[Tatars|Tatar]] culture rather than Chinese. The biography of You Xingge (d. 1227) identifies him as Balhae. As the Jin dynasty was collapsing from the Mongol invasions, You established an independent fort near Gaozhou (modern [[Chifeng]]). They fought off several military detachments until they were besieged by [[Muqali]]. After You surrendered, Muqali praised him to [[Genghis Khan]], who bestowed on him the Mongol name Halabadu. He later fought for the Mongols at Taiyuan in 1227. You Xingge's son is only referred to by the name Mangqutai, which denotes him as part of the Mangqutai tribe.{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=394-395}}

The decline of Balhae identity was not a gradual and steady process. According to Toyama Gunji, "the Bohai remained alive and well for three hundred years of history" after the state was destroyed.{{sfn|Sloane|2014|p=403}}