Editing Atlantic slave trade (section)

===African opposition to the slave trade===
[[File:Boukary Koutou's Mossi cavalry returning with captives from a raid, Ouagadougou.jpg|thumb|[[Wobgho|Boukary Koutou]]'s [[Mossi people|Mossi]] cavalry returning with captives from a raid, [[Ouagadougou]]-]]

Sometimes trading between Europeans and African leaders was not equal. For example, Europeans influenced Africans to provide more slaves by forming military alliances with warring African societies to instigate more fighting which would provide more war captives to the African rulers to trade as slaves for European consumer goods. Also, Europeans shifted the location of disembarkation points for trade along the African coast to follow military conflicts in West-Central Africa. In areas of Africa where slavery was not prevalent, European slave traders worked and negotiated with African rulers on their terms for trade, and African rulers refused to supply European demands. Africans and Europeans profited from the slave trade; however, African populations, the social, political, and military changes to African societies suffered greatly. For example, [[Mossi Kingdoms]] resisted the Atlantic slave trade and refused to participate in the selling of African people. However, as time progressed more European slave traders entered into West Africa and were having more influence in African nations and the Mossi became involved in slave trading in the 1800s.<ref name="ldhi">{{cite web |title=African Participation and Resistance to the Trade |url=https://ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/africanpassageslowcountryadapt/introductionatlanticworld/african_participation_and_resi |website=Lowcountry History Digitial Initiative |publisher=Lowcountry Digital Library at the College of Charleston |access-date=17 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240620105658/http://ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/africanpassageslowcountryadapt/introductionatlanticworld/african_participation_and_resi |archive-date=20 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The history of the transatlantic slave trade |url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/history-transatlantic-slave-trade |website=[[Royal Museums Greenwich]] |access-date=17 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518095928/https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/history-transatlantic-slave-trade |archive-date=18 May 2024}}</ref>

[[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants. To escape slave raids some Africans escaped into swamp regions or to other areas.]]

Although many African nations participated and profited from the Atlantic slave trade, many African nations also resisted such as the [[Jola people|Djola]] and [[Balanta people|Balanta]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The fight: African resistance |url=http://revealinghistories.org.uk/who-resisted-and-campaigned-for-abolition/articles/the-fight-african-resistance.html |website=Revealing Histories Remembering Slavery |access-date=18 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118205542/http://revealinghistories.org.uk/who-resisted-and-campaigned-for-abolition/articles/the-fight-african-resistance.html |archive-date=18 January 2024}}</ref> Some African nations organized into military resistance movements and fought African slave raiders and European slave traders entering their villages. For example, the [[Akan people|Akan]], Etsi, Fetu, Eguafo, [[Agona]], and Asebu people organized into the [[Fante people|Fante]] coalition and fought African and European slave raiders and protected themselves from capture and enslavement.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shumway |first1=Rebecca |title=The Fante and the Transatlantic Slave Trade |journal=[[The American Historical Review]] |date=2014 |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=1826–1827 |doi=10.1093/ahr/119.5.1826 |url=https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article-abstract/119/5/1826/44831?redirectedFrom=fulltext |access-date=19 January 2024 |archive-date=19 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119194218/https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article-abstract/119/5/1826/44831?redirectedFrom=fulltext |url-status=live}}</ref> Chief Tomba was born in 1700 and his adopted father was a general from the Jalonke-speaking people who fought against the slave trade. Tomba became ruler of the [[Baga people]] in present-day [[Guinea-Bissau|Guinea Bissau]] in West Africa and made alliances with nearby African villages against African and European slave traders. His efforts were unsuccessful: Tomba was captured by African traders and sold into slavery.<ref>{{cite web |title=Slavery and the Natural World, People and the Slave Trade |url=https://www.nhm.ac.uk/resources-www/legacy/slavery-files/chapter-2-people-and-slavery.pdf |website=[[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]] |access-date=19 January 2024 |ref=Information about Chief Tomba is on page 19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330215328/https://www.nhm.ac.uk/resources-www/legacy/slavery-files/chapter-2-people-and-slavery.pdf |archive-date=30 March 2024}}</ref>

[[Kimpa Vita|Donna Beatriz Kimpa Vita]] in [[Kongo people|Kongo]] and Senegalese leader Abd al-Qadir, advocated resistance against the forced exportation of Africans.<ref>{{cite web |title=Africa and the Transatlantic Slave Trade |url=https://www.slps.org/cms/lib/MO01001157/Centricity/Domain/9446/BBC%20-%20History%20-%20British%20History%20in%20depth_%20Africa%20and%20the%20Transatlantic%20Slave%20Trade.pdf |website=St. Louis Public Schools |access-date=20 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330215334/https://www.slps.org/cms/lib/MO01001157/Centricity/Domain/9446/BBC%20-%20History%20-%20British%20History%20in%20depth_%20Africa%20and%20the%20Transatlantic%20Slave%20Trade.pdf |archive-date=30 March 2024}}</ref> In the 1770s, leader Abdul Kader Khan opposed the Atlantic slave trade through [[Futa Tooro|Futa Toro]], present-day [[Senegal]]. Abdul Kader Khan and Futa Toro nation resisted French slave traders and colonizers who wanted to enslave Africans and Muslims from Futa Toro.<ref>{{cite web |title=African-American Passages: Black Lives in the 19th Century |url=https://www.loc.gov/podcasts/african-american-passages/transcripts/AAPassages-Podcast_Episode2_transcription.pdf |website=Library of Congress |access-date=19 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119200351/https://www.loc.gov/podcasts/african-american-passages/transcripts/AAPassages-Podcast_Episode2_transcription.pdf |archive-date=19 January 2024}}</ref> Other forms of resistance against the Atlantic slave trade by African nations was migrating to different areas in West Africa such as swamps and lake regions to escape slave raids. In West Africa, [[Efik people|Efik]] slave dealers participated in slave dealing as a form of protection against enslavement.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Diouf Anne |first1=Sylviane |title=Fighting the Slave Trade West African Strategies |date=2003 |publisher=[[Ohio University Press]] |isbn=9780821415160 |pages=42–45, 102–105 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n0lI5c9trSAC&q=resistance}}</ref> African resistance movements were carried out in every phase of the slave trade to resisting marches to the slave holding stations, resistance at the slave coast, and resistance on slave ships.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilsey |first1=Adam |title=A Study of West African Slave Resistance from the Seventeenth to Nineteenth Centuries |journal=History in the Making |date=2008 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=77–91 |url=https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1222&context=history-in-the-making |access-date=18 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240726155146/https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1222&context=history-in-the-making |archive-date=26 July 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Amistad revolt.jpg|thumb|On July 1, 1839, enslaved [[Mende people|Mende]] people aboard the [[La Amistad|Amistad]] revolted and took control of the ship. This incident led to a [[United States v. The Amistad|Supreme Court case in 1841]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Amistad Case, 1839 |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/amistad |website=Department of the State United States America |access-date=28 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313173650/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/amistad |archive-date=13 March 2024}}</ref>]]

For example, aboard the slave ship Clare, the enslaved Africans revolted and drove the crew from the vessel and took control of the ship and liberated themselves and landed near [[Cape Coast Castle]] in present-day [[Ghana]] in 1729. On other slave ships enslaved Africans sunk ships, killed the crew, and set fire to ships with explosives. Slave traders and white crewmembers prepared and prevented possible rebellions by loading women, men, and children separately inside slave ships because enslaved children used loose pieces of wood, tools, and any objects they found and passed them to the men to free themselves and fight the crew. According to historical research from the records of slave ship captains, between 1698 and 1807, there were 353 acts of insurrection aboard slave ships. The majority of the rebellions by the Africans were defeated. [[Igbo people|Igbo]] slaves on ships committed suicide by jumping overboard as an act of resistance to enslavement. To prevent further suicides, white crewmen placed nets around slave ships to catch enslaved persons that jumped overboard. White captains and crewmen invested in firearms, [[swivel gun]]s, and ordered ship crews to watch slaves to prevent or prepare for possible slave revolts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Richardson |first1=David |title=Shipboard Revolts, African Authority, and the Atlantic Slave Trade |journal=The William and Mary Quarterly |date=2001 |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=72–73 |doi=10.2307/2674419 |jstor=2674419 |pmid=18634185 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2674419 |access-date=29 April 2024 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429191919/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2674419 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Resistance and Rebellion |url=https://understandingslavery.com/themes/resistance-and-rebellion/#:~:text=In%20the%2019th%20century%2C%20slave,theme%20of%20Resistance%20and%20Rebellion. |website=Understanding Slavery Initiative |access-date=21 January 2025}}</ref>

[[John Newton]] was a captain of slave ships and recorded in his personal journal how Africans mutinied on ships, and some were successful in overtaking the crew.<ref>{{cite web |title=Slave Ship Mutinies |url=https://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0035 |website=Colonial Williamsburg Foundation |publisher=United Nations, Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization |access-date=27 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522021426/http://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0035 |archive-date=22 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Forbes |first1=Ella |title=African Resistance to Enslavement: The Nature and the Evidentiary Record |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |date=1992 |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=44–46 |doi=10.1177/002193479202300104 |jstor=2784672 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2784672 |access-date=27 February 2024 |archive-date=27 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227191041/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2784672 |url-status=live}}</ref> For example, in 1730 the slave ship ''Little George'' departed from the [[Guinea (region)|Guinea Coast]] in route to [[Rhode Island]] with a cargo of ninety-six enslaved Africans. A few of the slaves slipped out of their iron chains and killed three of the watchmen on deck and imprisoned the captain and the rest of the crew. The Africans received a promise of freedom in a deal made with the captain and his crew. Africans reclaimed the ship and sailed it back to Africa's shore. The captain and crew failed in their attempt to re-enslave the Africans.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bly |first1=Antonio |title=Crossing the Lake of Fire: Slave Resistance during the Middle Passage, 1720-1842 |journal=The Journal of Negro History |date=1998 |volume=83 |issue=3 |page=184 |doi=10.2307/2649014 |jstor=2649014 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2649014 |access-date=28 February 2024 |archive-date=28 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240228160713/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2649014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

According to research by historian Jane Landers, more rebellions on slave ships occurred when there were large numbers of African women aboard.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wills |first1=Matthew |title=Two Women of the African Slave Resistance |url=https://daily.jstor.org/the-women-of-the-african-slave-resistance/ |website=JSTOR Daily |publisher=JSTOR |access-date=21 January 2025}}</ref>