Editing Arsenic (section)

== Applications ==

=== Agricultural ===
[[File:Roxarsone.png|thumb|[[Roxarsone]] is a controversial arsenic compound used as a feed ingredient for chickens.]]

The toxicity of arsenic to insects, bacteria, and fungi led to its use as a [[wood preservative]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.2134/jeq2004.0173 |last1 = Rahman |first1 = F. A. |last2 = Allan |first2 = D. L. |last3 = Rosen |first3 = C. J. |last4 = Sadowsky |first4 = M. J. |title = Arsenic availability from chromated copper arsenate (CCA)-treated wood |journal = Journal of Environmental Quality |volume = 33 |issue = 1 |pages = 173–180 |date = 2004 |pmid = 14964372}}</ref> In the 1930s, a process of treating wood with [[chromated copper arsenate]] (also known as CCA or [[Tanalith]]) was invented, and for decades, this treatment was the most extensive industrial use of arsenic. An increased appreciation of the toxicity of arsenic led to a ban of CCA in consumer products in 2004, initiated by the European Union and United States.<ref>{{cite book|title = Environmental Chemistry: Green Chemistry and Pollutants in Ecosystems|editor = Lichtfouse, Eric|editor2 = Schwarzbauer, Jan|editor3 = Robert, Didier|date = 2004|isbn = 978-3-540-22860-8|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IDGLh_cWAIwC|chapter = Electrodialytical Removal of Cu, Cr and As from Threaded Wood|first = Eric|last = Lichtfouse |publisher = Springer|location = Berlin}}</ref><ref name="round">{{cite journal|journal = Talanta|volume = 58|issue = 1|date = 2002|pages = 201–235|doi = 10.1016/S0039-9140(02)00268-0|title = Arsenic round the world: a review|first1 = Badal Kumar|last1 = Mandal|pmid = 18968746|last2 = Suzuki|first2 = K. T.}}</ref> However, CCA remains in heavy use in other countries (such as on Malaysian rubber plantations).<ref name = Ullmann />

Arsenic was also used in various agricultural insecticides and poisons. For example, [[lead hydrogen arsenate]] was a common insecticide on [[fruit tree]]s,<ref>{{cite conference|last = Peryea|first = F. J.|title = Historical use of lead arsenate insecticides, resulting in soil contamination and implications for soil remediation|conference = 16th World Congress of Soil Science|place = Montpellier, France|date = 20–26 August 1998|url = http://soils.tfrec.wsu.edu/leadhistory.htm|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081207174027/http://soils.tfrec.wsu.edu/leadhistory.htm|archive-date = 7 December 2008}}</ref> but contact with the compound sometimes resulted in brain damage among those working the sprayers. In the second half of the 20th century, [[monosodium methyl arsenate]] (MSMA) and [[disodium methyl arsenate]] (DSMA) – less toxic organic forms of arsenic – replaced lead arsenate in agriculture. These organic arsenicals were in turn phased out in the United States by 2013 in all agricultural activities except cotton farming.<ref name="Federal Register">{{cite web |title=Organic Arsenicals; Notice of Receipt of Requests to Voluntarily Cancel or to Amend to Terminate Uses of Certain Pesticide Registrations |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2009-07-08/html/E9-16054.htm |website=Federal Register |publisher=Government Printing Office |access-date=18 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Monosodium Methanearsonate (MSMA), an Organic Arsenical |date=22 April 2015 |url=https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/monosodium-methanearsonate-msma-organic-arsenical |publisher=Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=18 July 2023}}</ref>

The biogeochemistry of arsenic is complex and includes various adsorption and desorption processes. The toxicity of arsenic is connected to its solubility and is affected by pH. Arsenite ({{chem2|AsO3(3-)}}) is more soluble than arsenate ({{chem2|AsO4(3-)}}) and is more toxic; however, at a lower pH, arsenate becomes more mobile and toxic. It was found that addition of sulfur, phosphorus, and iron oxides to high-arsenite soils greatly reduces arsenic phytotoxicity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.crcpress.com/Trace-Elements-in-Soils-and-Plants-Third-Edition/Kabata-Pendias/p/book/9780849315756|title=Trace Elements in Soils and Plants, Third Edition|website=CRC Press|access-date=2016-08-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821154852/https://www.crcpress.com/Trace-Elements-in-Soils-and-Plants-Third-Edition/Kabata-Pendias/p/book/9780849315756|archive-date=21 August 2016|url-status = dead}}</ref>

Arsenic is used as a feed additive in [[Poultry farming|poultry]] and [[Pig farming|swine production]], in particular it was used in the U.S. until 2015 to increase weight gain, improve [[feed conversion ratio|feed efficiency]], and prevent disease.<ref>{{cite journal|journal = Environmental Health Perspectives|date = 2005|volume = 113|issue = 9|pages = 1123–1124|doi = 10.1289/ehp.7834|pmid = 16140615|pmc = 1280389|title = Arsenic: A Roadblock to Potential Animal Waste Management Solutions|first1 = Keeve E.|last1 = Nachman|last2 = Graham|first2 = Jay P.|last3 = Price|first3 = Lance B.|last4 = Silbergeld|first4 = Ellen K.| bibcode=2005EnvHP.113.1123N }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp2-c5.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp2-c5.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Arsenic |at=Section 5.3, p. 310 |publisher=Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry }}</ref> An example is [[roxarsone]], which had been used as a [[broiler]] starter by about 70% of U.S. broiler growers.<ref>{{cite journal|title =A Broad View of Arsenic|date = 2007|volume = 86|pages = 2–14|journal = Poultry Science|first = F. T.|last =Jones|pmid =17179408|issue =1|doi=10.1093/ps/86.1.2|doi-access =free}}</ref> In 2011, Alpharma, a subsidiary of Pfizer Inc., which produces roxarsone, voluntarily suspended sales of the drug in response to studies showing elevated levels of inorganic arsenic, a carcinogen, in treated chickens.<ref name="FDAQ&A">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=Questions and Answers Regarding 3-Nitro (Roxarsone) |url=https://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/SafetyHealth/ProductSafetyInformation/ucm258313.htm |date=8 June 2011 |publisher=[[U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] |access-date=2012-09-21 }}</ref> A successor to Alpharma, [[Zoetis]], continued to sell [[nitarsone]] until 2015, primarily for use in turkeys.<ref name="FDAQ&A" />

=== Medical use ===

During the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, a number of arsenic compounds were used as medicines, including [[arsphenamine]] (by [[Paul Ehrlich]]) and [[arsenic trioxide]] (by [[Thomas Fowler (inventor)|Thomas Fowler]]), for treating diseases such as cancer or [[psoriasis]].<ref name="ITOM">{{cite book |last1=Gibaud |first1=Stéphane |last2=Jaouen |first2=Gérard |title=Medicinal Organometallic Chemistry |chapter=Arsenic-Based Drugs: From Fowler's Solution to Modern Anticancer Chemotherapy |date=2010 |volume=32 |pages=1–20 |doi= 10.1007/978-3-642-13185-1_1 |series=Topics in Organometallic Chemistry |isbn=978-3-642-13184-4|bibcode=2010moc..book....1G }}</ref> Arsphenamine, as well as [[neosalvarsan]], was indicated for [[syphilis]], but has been superseded by modern [[antibiotics]]. However, arsenicals such as [[melarsoprol]] are still used for the treatment of [[trypanosomiasis]] in spite of their severe toxicity, since the disease is almost uniformly fatal if untreated.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 28673422 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31510-6 | volume=390 | issue=10110 | title=Human African trypanosomiasis | year=2017 |vauthors=Büscher P, Cecchi G, Jamonneau V, Priotto G | journal=Lancet | pages=2397–2409| s2cid=4853616 }}</ref> In 2000 the US [[Food and Drug Administration]] approved arsenic trioxide for the treatment of patients with [[acute promyelocytic leukemia]] that is resistant to [[all-trans retinoic acid]].<ref>{{cite journal|last = Antman |first = Karen H.|date = 2001| title = The History of Arsenic Trioxide in Cancer Therapy|volume = 6|issue =Suppl 2|pages = 1–2|pmid = 11331433|doi = 10.1634/theoncologist.6-suppl_2-1|journal = The Oncologist|doi-access = free}}</ref>

A 2008 paper reports success in locating tumors using arsenic-74 (a positron emitter). This isotope produces clearer [[Positron emission tomography|PET scan]] images than the previous radioactive agent, [[iodine]]-124, because the body tends to transport iodine to the thyroid gland producing signal noise.<ref>{{cite journal|journal = Clinical Cancer Research|date = 2008|volume = 14|pages =1377–1385|doi = 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-07-1516|title = Vascular imaging of solid tumors in rats with a radioactive arsenic-labeled antibody that binds exposed phosphatidylserine |last1 = Jennewein |first1 =Marc|pmid = 18316558|issue = 5|last2 = Lewis|first2 = M. A.|last3 = Zhao|first3 = D.|last4 = Tsyganov |first4 = E.|last5 = Slavine |first5 = N. |last6 = He |first6 = J. |last7 = Watkins |first7 = L. |last8 = Kodibagkar |first8 = V. D.|last9 = O'Kelly |first9 = S.|first10=P. |last10=Kulkarni|first11=P. |last11=Antich|first12=A. |last12=Hermanne|first13=F. |last13=Rösch |first14=R. |last14=Mason |first15=Ph. |last15=Thorpe |display-authors=6 |pmc = 3436070}}</ref> [[Nanoparticle]]s of arsenic have shown ability to kill cancer cells with lesser [[cytotoxicity]] than other arsenic formulations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Subastri |first1=Ariraman |last2=Arun |first2=Viswanathan |last3=Sharma |first3=Preeti |last4=Preedia babu |first4=Ezhuthupurakkal |last5=Suyavaran |first5=Arumugam |last6=Nithyananthan |first6=Subramaniyam |last7=Alshammari |first7=Ghedeir M. |last8=Aristatile |first8=Balakrishnan |last9=Dharuman |first9=Venkataraman |last10=Thirunavukkarasu |first10=Chinnasamy  |display-authors=6 |title=Synthesis and characterisation of arsenic nanoparticles and its interaction with DNA and cytotoxic potential on breast cancer cells |journal=Chemico-Biological Interactions |date=November 2018 |volume=295 |pages=73–83 |doi=10.1016/j.cbi.2017.12.025 |pmid=29277637 |bibcode=2018CBI...295...73S |s2cid=1816043 }}</ref>

=== Alloys ===

The main use of arsenic is in alloying with lead. Lead components in [[Automotive battery|car batteries]] are strengthened by the presence of a very small percentage of arsenic.<ref name = Ullmann /><ref>{{cite journal|doi =10.1016/0378-7753(94)01973-Y|title =Lead alloys: Past, present and future|date =1995|last1 =Bagshaw|first1 =N. E.|journal =Journal of Power Sources|volume =53|issue =1|pages =25–30|bibcode = 1995JPS....53...25B }}</ref> [[Selective leaching|Dezincification]] of [[brass]] (a copper-zinc alloy) is greatly reduced by the addition of arsenic.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=1hSJcC9zwFIC&pg=PA123|pages =123–124| chapter = Dealloying|title = Copper: Its Trade, Manufacture, Use, and Environmental Status|isbn = 978-0-87170-656-0|last1 = Joseph|first1 = Günter|last2 = Kundig|first2 = Konrad J. A|last3 = Association|first3 = International Copper|date = 1999|publisher =ASM International}}</ref> "Phosphorus Deoxidized Arsenical Copper" with an arsenic content of 0.3% has an increased corrosion stability in certain environments.<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=cXkNMB1vBesC&pg=SA5-PA6| page = 6 |title = The Metals Databook |isbn = 978-0-07-462300-8 |author1 = Nayar |date = 1997| publisher = McGraw-Hill }}</ref> [[Gallium arsenide]] is an important [[semiconductor]] material, used in [[integrated circuit]]s. Circuits made from GaAs are much faster (but also much more expensive) than those made from [[silicon]]. Unlike silicon, GaAs has a [[direct bandgap]], and can be used in [[laser diode]]s and [[LED]]s to convert electrical energy directly into light.<ref name = Ullmann />

=== Military ===

After [[World War I]], the United States built a stockpile of 20,000 tons of [[Chemical warfare|weaponized]] [[lewisite]] (ClCH=CHAsCl<sub>2</sub>), an [[organoarsenic]] [[vesicant]] (blister agent) and [[lung]] irritant. The stockpile was neutralized with [[Sodium hypochlorite|bleach]] and dumped into the [[Gulf of Mexico]] in the 1950s.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://library.thinkquest.org/05aug/00639/en/w_chemical_blister.html|publisher = Code Red – Weapons of Mass Destruction |title = Blister Agents|access-date = 2010-05-15 }}</ref> Lewisite, the chemical warfare agent, is known for its acute toxicity to aquatic organisms.  However, studies assessing the environmental impact of this disposal in the Gulf are lacking.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Czub |first1=Michał |last2=Nawała |first2=Jakub |last3=Popiel |first3=Stanisław |last4=Brzeziński |first4=Tomasz |last5=Maszczyk |first5=Piotr |last6=Sanderson |first6=Hans |last7=Maser |first7=Edmund |last8=Gordon |first8=Diana |last9=Dziedzic |first9=Daniel |last10=Dawidziuk |first10=Barbara |last11=Pijanowska |first11=Joanna |last12=Fabisiak |first12=Jacek |last13=Szubska |first13=Marta |last14=Lang |first14=Thomas |last15=Vanninen |first15=Paula |display-authors=6 |date=2021-01-01 |title=Acute aquatic toxicity of arsenic-based chemical warfare agents to Daphnia magna |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166445X20304422 |journal=Aquatic Toxicology |volume=230 |pages=105693 |doi=10.1016/j.aquatox.2020.105693 |pmid=33310671 |bibcode=2021AqTox.23005693C |issn=0166-445X}}</ref> During the [[Vietnam War]], the United States used [[Agent Blue]], a mixture of [[sodium cacodylate]] and its acid form, as one of the [[rainbow herbicides]] to deprive North Vietnamese soldiers of foliage cover and rice.<ref>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1016/0006-3207(72)90043-2|title = Herbicides in war: Current status and future doubt|date = 1972|last1 = Westing|first1 = Arthur H.|journal = Biological Conservation|volume = 4|issue = 5|pages = 322–327| bibcode=1972BCons...4..322W }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Westing| first1 = Arthur H.|title =Forestry and the War in South Vietnam|journal = Journal of Forestry|volume = 69|pages = 777–783|date = 1971|url = http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/saf/jof/1971/00000069/00000011/art00008}}</ref><!--https://books.google.com/books?id=agsAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA37-->

=== Other uses ===
* Copper acetoarsenite was used as a green [[pigment]] known under many names, including [[Paris Green]] and Emerald Green. It caused numerous [[arsenic poisoning]]s. [[Scheele's Green]], a copper arsenate, was used in the 19th century as a [[food dye|coloring agent]] in [[sweets]].<ref>{{cite book|title = The Poison Paradox: Chemicals as Friends and Foes|chapter = Butter Yellow and Scheele's Green|first = John|last = Timbrell|publisher = Oxford University Press|date = 2005|isbn = 978-0-19-280495-2|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qYYOtQU37jcC|url-access = registration|url = https://archive.org/details/poisonparadoxche0000timb}}</ref>
* Arsenic is used in [[bronzing]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1007/BF02519786|title = Industrial exposure to arsenic|date = 1979|last1 = Cross|first1 = J. D.|last2 = Dale|first2 = I. M.|last3 = Leslie|first3 = A. C. D.|last4 = Smith|first4 = H.|journal = Journal of Radioanalytical Chemistry|volume = 48|issue = 1–2|pages = 197–208| bibcode=1979JRNC...48..197C |s2cid = 93714157}}</ref>
* As much as 2% of produced arsenic is used in lead alloys for [[lead shot]] and bullets.<ref>{{cite book|title = Engineering Properties and Applications of Lead Alloys|chapter = XIV. Ammunition|first = Sivaraman|last = Guruswamy|publisher = CRC Press|date = 1999|isbn = 978-0-8247-8247-4|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TtGmjOv9CUAC|pages = 569–570}}</ref>
* Arsenic is added in small quantities to alpha-brass to make it [[Selective leaching|dezincification-resistant]]. This grade of brass is used in plumbing fittings and other wet environments.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sxkPJzmkhnUC&pg=PA390|chapter = Dealloying|page =390|isbn = 978-0-87170-726-0|title = Copper and copper alloys|last1 = Davis |first1=Joseph R. |author2 = Handbook Committee, ASM International|year= 2001| publisher=ASM International }}</ref>
* Arsenic is also used for [[Taxonomy|taxonomic]] sample preservation.<!--https://books.google.com/books?id=aRI9MrpXLqYC&pg=PA93 --> It was also used in embalming fluids historically.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Quigley |first=Christine |url={{Google books|ZMSSCgAAQBAJ|page=6|plainurl=yes}}|page=6 |title=Modern Mummies: The Preservation of the Human Body in the Twentieth Century |date=2006 |orig-date=First published 1998 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-1-4766-1373-4 |language=en}}</ref>
* Arsenic was used in the [[taxidermy]] process up until the 1980s.<ref>{{cite journal| last1=Marte | first1=Fernando | last2=Pequignot | first2=Amandine| title=Arsenic in Taxidermy Collections: History, Detection, and Management |journal=Collection Forum|year=2006| url=https://repository.si.edu/handle/10088/8134|hdl=10088/8134|volume=21|issue=1–2|pages=143–150}}</ref>
* Arsenic was used as an opacifier in ceramics, creating white glazes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Parmelee |first1=Cullen W. |title=Ceramic Glazes |date=1947 |publisher=Cahners Books |location=Boston|page=61 |edition=3rd}}</ref>
* Until recently, arsenic was used in optical glass. Modern glass manufacturers have ceased using both arsenic and lead.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Qt7sNqoP_CkC&pg=PA68|page =68|title = Pollution technology review 214: Mercury and arsenic wastes: removal, recovery, treatment, and disposal|publisher = William Andrew|date = 1993|isbn = 978-0-8155-1326-1|chapter = Arsenic Supply Demand and the Environment|author=United States Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Mahendra |last2=Seth |first2=Aparna |last3=Singh |first3=Alak Kumar |last4=Rajput |first4=Manish Singh |last5=Sikandar |first5=Mohd |date=2021-12-01 |title=Remediation strategies for heavy metals contaminated ecosystem: A review |journal=Environmental and Sustainability Indicators |volume=12 |pages=100155 |doi=10.1016/j.indic.2021.100155 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021EnvSI..1200155K }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Humans |first=IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to |title=Exposures in the Glass Manufacturing Industry |date=1993 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499748/ |work=Beryllium, Cadmium, Mercury, and Exposures in the Glass Manufacturing Industry |volume=58 |pages=347–375 |access-date=2024-01-12 |publisher=International Agency for Research on Cancer |language=en |pmid=8022057|pmc=7681308 }}</ref>