Editing Ancient Greek philosophy (section)

=== Plato ===
{{Main|Plato}}
Plato was an [[Classical Athens|Athenian]] of the generation after [[Socrates]]. Ancient tradition ascribes thirty-six dialogues and thirteen [[Epistles (Plato)|letters]] to him, although of these only twenty-four of the dialogues are now universally recognized as authentic; most modern scholars believe that at least twenty-eight dialogues and two of the letters were in fact written by Plato, although all of the thirty-six dialogues have some defenders.<ref>John M. Cooper, ed., ''Complete Works'', by Plato (Indianapolis:  Hackett, 1997), v–vi, viii–xii, 1634–35.</ref> A further nine dialogues are ascribed to Plato but were considered spurious even in antiquity.<ref>Cooper, ed., ''Complete Works'', by Plato, v–vi, viii–xii.</ref>

Plato's dialogues feature Socrates, although not always as the leader of the conversation. (One dialogue, the [[Laws (Plato)|''Laws'']], instead contains an "Athenian Stranger".) Along with [[Xenophon]], Plato is the primary source of information about Socrates' life and beliefs and it is not always easy to distinguish between the two. While the Socrates presented in the dialogues is often taken to be Plato's mouthpiece, Socrates' reputation for [[irony]], his caginess regarding his own opinions in the dialogues, and his occasional absence from or minor role in the conversation serve to conceal Plato's doctrines.<ref>[[Leo Strauss]], ''The City and Man'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), 50–51.</ref> Much of what is said about his doctrines is derived from what Aristotle reports about them.

The political doctrine ascribed to Plato is derived from the [[The Republic (Plato)|''Republic'']], the [[Laws (dialogue)|''Laws'']], and the [[Statesman (dialogue)|''Statesman'']]. The first of these contains the suggestion that there will not be justice in cities unless they are ruled by [[philosopher king]]s; those responsible for enforcing the laws are compelled to hold their women, children, and property in [[communism|common]]; and the individual is taught to pursue the common good through [[noble lie]]s; the ''Republic'' says that such a city is likely impossible, however, generally assuming that philosophers would refuse to rule and the people would refuse to compel them to do so.<ref name="Strauss Plato">Leo Strauss, "Plato", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, 3rd ed. (Chicago:  University of Chicago Press 1987): 33–89.</ref>

Whereas the ''Republic'' is premised on a distinction between the sort of knowledge possessed by the philosopher and that possessed by the king or political man, Socrates explores only the character of the philosopher; in the ''Statesman'', on the other hand, a participant referred to as the Eleatic Stranger discusses the sort of knowledge possessed by the political man, while Socrates listens quietly.<ref name="Strauss Plato" /> Although rule by a wise man would be preferable to rule by law, the wise cannot help but be judged by the unwise, and so in practice, rule by law is deemed necessary.

Both the ''Republic'' and the ''Statesman'' reveal the limitations of politics, raising the question of what political order would be best given those constraints; that question is addressed in the ''Laws'', a dialogue that does not take place in Athens and from which Socrates is absent.<ref name="Strauss Plato" /> The character of the society described there is eminently conservative, a corrected or liberalized [[timocracy]] on the [[Sparta#Classical Sparta|Spartan]] or [[History of Crete#Classical, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine and Arab Crete|Cretan]] model or that of pre-democratic [[Classical Athens|Athens]].<ref name="Strauss Plato" />

Plato's dialogues also have [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] themes, the most famous of which is his [[theory of forms]]. It holds that non-material abstract (but [[ousia|substantial]]) forms (or ideas), and not the material world of change known to us through our physical senses, possess the highest and most fundamental kind of reality. He argued extensively in the ''[[Phaedo]]'', ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'', and ''[[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]'' for the immortality of the soul, and he believed specifically in [[reincarnation]].<ref>See [[Kamtekar, Rachana]]. “The Soul’s (After-) Life,” ''Ancient Philosophy'' 36 (2016): 1–18.</ref>

Plato often uses long-form [[analogies]] (usually [[allegories]]) to explain his ideas; the most famous is perhaps the [[Allegory of the Cave]]. It likens most humans to people tied up in a cave, who look only at shadows on the walls and have no other conception of reality.<ref>{{cite web |title=Plato – Allegory of the cave |website=classicalastrologer.files.wordpress.com |url=http://classicalastrologer.files.wordpress.com/2012/12/plato-allegory-of-the-cave.pdf}}</ref> If they turned around, they would see what is casting the shadows (and thereby gain a further dimension to their reality). If some left the cave, they would see the outside world illuminated by the sun (representing the ultimate form of goodness and truth). If these travelers then re-entered the cave, the people inside (who are still only familiar with the shadows) would not be equipped to believe reports of this 'outside world'.<ref>{{cite web |title=Allegory of the Cave |work=washington.edu |url=http://faculty.washington.edu/smcohen/320/cave.htm}}</ref> This story explains the theory of forms with their different levels of reality, and advances the view that philosopher-kings are wisest while most humans are ignorant.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kemerling |first=Garth |title=Plato: The Republic 5–10 |work=philosophypages.com |url=http://www.philosophypages.com/hy/2h.htm}}</ref> One student of Plato, [[Aristotle]], who would become another of the most influential philosophers of all time, stressed the implication that understanding relies upon first-hand observation.