Editing Alchemy (section)

=== Medieval Europe ===
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[[File:WMS 446, R. Lullius, Ymage de Vie, late 15th Wellcome L0031726.jpg|thumb|"An illuminated page from a book on alchemical processes and receipts", ca. 15th century]]

The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of [[Robert of Chester]]'s translation of the {{lang|la|[[Liber de compositione alchemiae]]}} ("Book on the Composition of Alchemy") from an Arabic work attributed to [[Khalid ibn Yazid]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moureau |first1=Sébastien |year=2020 |title=Min al-kīmiyāʾ ad alchimiam. The Transmission of Alchemy from the Arab-Muslim World to the Latin West in the Middle Ages |journal=Micrologus |volume=28 |issue= |pages=87–141 |hdl=2078.1/211340 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/2078.1/211340}} p. 116.</ref> Although European craftsmen and technicians pre-existed, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy (here still referring to the [[philosophers' stone|elixir]] rather than to the art itself)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Halleux |first1=Robert |year=1996 |title=The Reception of Arabic Alchemy in the West|editor1-last=Rashed|editor1-first=Roshdi|editor1-link=Roshdi Rashed |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science |volume=3 |location=London |publisher=Routledge |pages=886–902 |isbn=978-0-415-02063-3}} p. 890; {{harvnb|Moureau|2020|p=90}}.</ref> was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century [[Toledo, Spain]], through contributors like [[Gerard of Cremona]] and [[Adelard of Bath]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|pp=105–108}}</ref> Translations of the time included the [[Turba Philosophorum]], and the works of [[Avicenna]] and [[Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi]]. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, [[carboy]], [[elixir]], and [[athanor]] are examples.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|p=110}}</ref>

Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century [[Anselm of Canterbury|St&nbsp;Anselm]] put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th century, [[Peter Abelard]] followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West. In the early 13th century, [[Robert Grosseteste]] used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking.<ref name=hollister294f>{{cite book |author=Hollister, C. Warren |title=Medieval Europe: A Short History |location=Blacklick, Ohio |publisher=McGraw–Hill College |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-07-557141-4 |edition=6th |pages=[https://archive.org/details/medievaleurope00cwar/page/294 294f] |url=https://archive.org/details/medievaleurope00cwar/page/294}}</ref>

Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists. In the 13th century, [[Albertus Magnus]] and [[Roger Bacon]] were the most notable of these, their work summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms.<ref>John Read. ''From Alchemy to Chemistry''. 1995 p.90</ref> Albertus Magnus, a [[Dominican Order|Dominican friar]], is known to have written works such as the ''Book of Minerals'' where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like [[Hermes Trismegistus]], [[pseudo-Democritus]] and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist.<ref>{{interlanguage link|James A. Weisheipl|it|James Athanasius Weisheipl|sv|James Athanasius Weisheipl}}. ''Albertus Magnus and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays.'' PIMS. 1980. pp. 187–202</ref> Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student [[Thomas Aquinas]].

Roger Bacon, a [[Franciscan Order|Franciscan friar]] who wrote on a wide variety of topics including [[optics]], [[comparative linguistics]], and medicine, composed his ''[[Opus Majus|Great Work]]'' ({{langx|la|Opus Majus}}) for {{nowrap|[[Pope Clement IV]]}} as part of a project towards rebuilding the [[medieval university]] curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to [[soteriology]] and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy.<ref>Edmund Brehm. "Roger Bacon's Place in the History of Alchemy." ''Ambix.'' Vol. 23, Part I, March 1976.</ref> Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The practical confirmed the theoretical, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|pp=120–121}}</ref> In later European legend, he became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Magnus, he was credited with the forging of a [[brazen head]] capable of answering its owner's questions.

Soon after Bacon, the influential work of [[Pseudo-Geber]] (sometimes identified as [[Paul of Taranto]]) appeared. His ''Summa Perfectionis'' remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|pp=134–141}}</ref> By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the [[soul|human soul]]). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded [[jargon]] set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practised their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made [[observation]]s and [[theory|theories]] about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God.<ref>{{cite book |first=Titus |last=Burckhardt | author-link=Titus Burckhardt |title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul |location=Baltimore |publisher=Penguin |year=1967 |page=149 |others=Trans. William Stoddart |isbn=978-0-906540-96-1}}</ref>

{{Infobox UK legislation
| short_title           = Gold and Silver Act 1403
| type                  = Act
| parliament            = Parliament of England
| long_title            = It shall be felony to use the craft of multiplication of gold or silver.
| year                  = 1404
| citation              = [[5 Hen. 4]]. c. 4
| introduced_commons    =
| introduced_lords      =
| territorial_extent    =
| royal_assent          = 20 March 1404
| commencement          = 14 January 1404
| expiry_date           =
| repeal_date           =
| amends                =
| replaces              =
| amendments            =
| repealing_legislation = [[Royal Mines Act 1688]]
| related_legislation   =
| status                = repealed
| legislation_history   =
| theyworkforyou        =
| millbankhansard       =
| original_text         =
| revised_text          =
| use_new_UK-LEG        =
| UK-LEG_title          =
| collapsed             = yes
}}
In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin-speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves.<ref>[[Tara Nummedal|Tara E. Nummedal]]. ''Alchemy and Authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' University of Chicago Press, 2007. p. 49</ref> [[Dante]], [[Piers Plowman]], and [[Chaucer]] all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. [[Pope John XXII]]'s 1317 edict, ''[[Spondent quas non-exhibent]]'' forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists.<ref>John Hines, II, R. F. Yeager. ''John Gower, Trilingual Poet: Language, Translation, and Tradition.'' Boydell & Brewer. 2010. p.170</ref> Roman Catholic Inquisitor General [[Nicholas Eymerich]]'s ''[[Directorium Inquisitorum]]'', written in 1376, associated alchemy with the performance of demonic rituals, which Eymerich differentiated from magic performed in accordance with scripture.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Tarrant |first=Neil |date=2018 |title=Between Aquinas and Eymerich: The Roman Inquisition's Use of Dominican Thought in the Censorship of Alchemy |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00026980.2018.1512779 |journal=Ambix |language=en |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=210–231 |doi=10.1080/00026980.2018.1512779 |pmid=30134775 |s2cid=52070616 |issn=0002-6980 |access-date=16 December 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221216012751/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00026980.2018.1512779 |url-status=live}}</ref> This did not, however, lead to any change in the Inquisition's monitoring or prosecution of alchemists.<ref name=":7" /> In 1404, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals by the passing of the {{visible anchor|Gold and Silver Act 1403}} ([[5 Hen. 4]]. c. 4) (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV).<ref>D. Geoghegan, "A licence of Henry VI to practise Alchemy" Ambix, vol. 6, 1957, pp. 10–17</ref> These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of [[Petrus Bonus]], [[John of Rupescissa]], and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova.<ref>[[Leah DeVun]]. ''From Prophecy, Alchemy, and the End of Time: John of Rupescissa in the late Middle Ages.'' Columbia University Press, 2009. p. 104</ref>

[[File:Joseph Wright of Derby The Alchemist.jpg|thumb|left|upright|''[[The Alchemist in Search of the Philosopher's Stone]]'', by Joseph Wright, 1771]]
[[Nicolas Flamel]] is a well-known alchemist to the point where he had many [[pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphic]] imitators. Although the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|2003|p=123}}</ref><ref>"Nicolas Flamel. Des Livres et de l'or" by Nigel Wilkins</ref>

A common idea in European alchemy in the medieval era was a metaphysical "[[Homer]]ic chain of wise men that link[ed] heaven and earth"<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last1=Carlson |first1=Kathie |title=The Book of Symbols: Reflections on Archetypal Images |last2=Flanagin |first2=Michael N. |last3=Martin |first3=Kathleen |last4=Martin |first4=Mary E. |last5=Mendelsohn |first5=John |last6=Rodgers |first6=Priscilla Young |last7=Ronnberg |first7=Ami |last8=Salman |first8=Sherry |last9=Wesley |first9=Deborah A. |publisher=[[Taschen]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-8365-1448-4 |editor-last=Arm |editor-first=Karen |location=Köln |page=514 |editor-last2=Ueda |editor-first2=Kako |editor-last3=Thulin |editor-first3=Anne |editor-last4=Langerak |editor-first4=Allison |editor-last5=Kiley |editor-first5=Timothy Gus |editor-last6=Wolff |editor-first6=Mary}}</ref> that included ancient pagan [[Philosophy|philosophers]] and other important historical figures.