Editing Wisdom (section)

====Modern and contemporary philosophy====
In the [[Age of Enlightenment]], the concept of wisdom shifted from religious and metaphysical frameworks to one rooted in rationality and moral duty. [[Immanuel Kant]] (1724–1804) argued that wisdom involves the application of practical reason to align one’s actions with universal moral principles.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Critique of Practical Reason |orig-year=1788 |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> He distinguished between theoretical reason, which seeks knowledge for its own sake, and practical reason, which applies knowledge ethically. Kantian wisdom involves making decisions that conform to the categorical imperative, a moral law derived from reason.

During the 19th century, romanticism and existentialism challenged the rationalist foundations of wisdom. [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] (1844–1900) criticized traditional views of wisdom as passive contemplation and obedience to moral codes. Instead, he championed "life-affirming wisdom", emphasizing personal growth through struggle and self-overcoming.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nietzsche |first=Friedrich |title=Thus Spoke Zarathustra |orig-year=1883 |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Nietzsche rejected the pursuit of static truths, instead advocating for a dynamic and self-created form of wisdom.

Existentialist philosophers further expanded this critique. [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] (1905–1980) viewed wisdom as a confrontation with the absurd condition of life and the freedom to create meaning in a world devoid of inherent purpose.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sartre |first=Jean-Paul |title=Being and Nothingness |orig-year=1943 |year=1993 |publisher=Washington Square Press}}</ref> [[Albert Camus]] (1913–1960) echoed these ideas in ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'', arguing that wisdom lies in accepting life's absurdity and choosing to live meaningfully despite its challenges.<ref>{{cite book |last=Camus |first=Albert |title=The Myth of Sisyphus |orig-year=1942 |year=1991 |publisher=Vintage International}}</ref>

In the 20th century, pragmatist philosophers like [[John Dewey]] (1859–1952) argued for a form of wisdom based on adaptability and practical decision-making. Dewey rejected fixed moral absolutes in favor of wisdom as a constantly evolving process of inquiry and experimentation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dewey |first=John |title=Democracy and Education |orig-year=1916 |year=2018 |publisher=Free Press}}</ref> Pragmatic wisdom, according to Dewey, emerges from ongoing reflection on experience and the ability to adapt principles to changing contexts.

Meanwhile, [[Virtue ethics|virtue ethicists]] such as [[Martha Nussbaum]] argue that wisdom is tied to [[emotional intelligence]] and [[empathy]]. In her works on [[Aristotelian ethics]], Nussbaum writes that wise individuals understand the complexities of human emotions and integrate them into moral reasoning.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nussbaum |first=Martha |title=The Fragility of Goodness: Luck and Ethics in Greek Tragedy and Philosophy |orig-year=1986 |year=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> This perspective sees wisdom not merely as intellectual discernment but as the capacity to recognize the emotional and contextual dimensions of moral life.

[[Postmodernism|Postmodern]] philosophers challenge the notion of wisdom as a universal concept. [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) argued that ideas of wisdom are shaped by power structures and are inherently subjective, often serving to reinforce dominant ideologies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Foucault |first=Michel |title=The Archaeology of Knowledge |orig-year=1969 |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> Postmodern perspectives emphasize cultural relativism and the diversity of wisdom across historical and social contexts rather than a singular definition.

Today, contemporary discussions of wisdom draw from cognitive science and social philosophy. Philosophers like [[Philip Kitcher]] focus on practical wisdom as collaborative decision-making in democratic societies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kitcher |first=Philip |title=The Ethical Project |year=2011 |publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> This view holds that wisdom is not an individual trait but a collective process involving diverse perspectives. As such, modern philosophy views wisdom as dynamic, context-dependent, and shaped by emotional, social, and cognitive factors.