Editing Wilfrid (section)

== York ==
=== Elevation to the episcopate ===
[[File:DescentChildrenOswiu.svg|thumb|left|375px|King Oswiu of Northumbria's family tree]]

After the supporters of the Celtic dating had withdrawn following the Council of Whitby, Wilfrid became the most prominent Northumbrian cleric. As a result, and because of his performance at Whitby,<ref name=Reassess32>John ''Reassessing Anglo-Saxon England'' pp. 32–33</ref> Wilfrid was elected to a bishopric in Northumbria about a year after the council.<ref name=Handbook224>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' p. 224</ref> It is unclear where his diocese was located, although he was considered to be Alhfrith's bishop.<ref name=Earliest87 /> The ''Vita Sancti Wilfrithi'' states that, nominated by both Oswiu and Alhfrith, he was made bishop at [[York]], and that he was a [[metropolitan bishop]], but York at that time was not a [[Metropolitan Diocese]].<ref name=Societal42 />{{efn|York did not attain metropolitan status until 735.<ref name=Hall>Hall "York" ''Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 428</ref>}} Bede says that Alhfrith alone nominated Wilfrid,<ref name=Fraser193>Fraser ''Caledonia to Pictland'' p. 193</ref> and that Oswiu subsequently proposed an alternative candidate, "imitating the actions of his son".<ref name=QFraser193>Quoted in Fraser ''Caledonia to Pictland'' p. 193</ref> Several theories have been suggested to explain the discrepancies between the two sources.<ref name=Societal42>John "Societal and Political Problems" ''Land, Church, and People'' pp. 42–49</ref> One is that Alhfrith wished the seat to be at York,<ref name=Earliest87 /> another is that Wilfrid was bishop only in Deira, a third supposes that Wilfrid was never bishop at York and that his diocese was only part of Deira.<ref name=Societal42 /> At that time the Anglo-Saxon dioceses were not strictly speaking geographical designations, rather they were bishoprics for the tribes or peoples.<ref name=Abels17>Abels "Council of Whitby" ''Journal of British Studies'' p. 17</ref>

Wilfrid refused to be consecrated in Northumbria at the hands of Anglo-Saxon bishops. Deusdedit had died shortly after Whitby, and as there were no other bishops in Britain whom Wilfrid considered to have been [[apostolic succession|validly consecrated]]<ref name=Earliest87 /> he travelled to [[Compiègne]], to be consecrated by Agilbert, the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Paris|Bishop of Paris]].<ref name=Harting129>Mayr-Harting ''Coming of Christianity'' p. 129–147</ref> During his time in Gaul Wilfrid was exposed to a higher level of ceremony than that practised in Northumbria, one example of which is that he was carried to his consecration ceremony on a throne supported by nine bishops.<ref name=Thomson56>Thomson ''Western Church'' p. 56</ref>

=== Delays and difficulties ===
Wilfrid delayed his return from Gaul, only to find on his arrival back in Northumbria that Ceadda had been installed as bishop in his place.<ref name=EncASE /> The reason for Wilfrid's delay has never been clear, although the historians [[Eric John]] and Richard Abels theorise that it was caused by Alhfrith's unsuccessful revolt against Oswiu. They suggest that the rebellion happened shortly after Whitby, perhaps while Wilfrid was in Gaul for his consecration. Because Oswiu knew that Alhfrith had been a supporter of Wilfrid's, Oswiu prevented Wilfrid's return, suspecting Wilfrid of supporting his rivals.<ref name=Reassess32 /><ref name=Abels18>Abels "Council of Whitby" ''Journal of British Studies'' pp. 18–19</ref> That Ceadda was supported by Oswiu, and Wilfrid had been a supporter of Oswiu's son, lends further credence to the theory that Alhfrith's rebellion took place while Wilfrid was in Gaul.<ref name=Farmer23>Farmer "Introduction" ''Age of Bede'' p. 23</ref> Stephen of Ripon reported that Wilfrid was expelled by "[[Quartodeciman]]s", or those who supported the celebration of Easter on the 14th day of the Jewish month [[Nisan]], whether or not this was a Sunday. However, as the Irish church had never been Quartodecimans, Stephen in this instance was constructing a narrative to put Wilfrid in the best light.<ref name=Rollason100>Rollason "Hagiography and Politics" ''Holy Men and Holy Women'' p. 100</ref>

During his return to Northumbria Wilfrid's ship was blown ashore on the Sussex coast, the inhabitants of which were at that time pagan. On being attacked by the locals, Wilfrid's party killed the head priest before refloating their ship and making their escape.<ref name=DNB /> The historian Marion Gibbs suggests that after this episode Wilfrid visited [[Kent]] again, and took part in the diplomacy related to [[Wighard|Wigheard]]'s appointment to the see of Canterbury. Wilfrid may also have taken part in negotiations to persuade King Cenwalh of Wessex to allow Agilbert to return to his see.<ref name=Gibbs220>Gibbs "Decrees of Agatho" ''Speculum'' pp. 220–221</ref>

=== Favourable outcome ===
Denied episcopal office, Wilfrid spent the three years from 665 to 668 as abbot of the monastery at Ripon.<ref name=Reassess34>John ''Reassessing Anglo-Saxon England'' pp. 34–35</ref> He occasionally performed episcopal functions in Mercia and Kent, but never did so north of the river [[Humber]].<ref name=Earliest87 /> The historian James Fraser argues that Wilfrid may not have been allowed to return to Northumbria and instead went into exile at the Mercian court,<ref name=Fraser193 /> but most historians have argued that Wilfrid was at Ripon.<ref name=DNB /><ref name=Earliest87 /><ref name=Reassess34 />

[[File:WulfhereGenealogy.svg|right|thumb|375px|Wulfhere of Mercia's family tree]]

Wilfrid's monasteries in Mercia may date from this time,<ref name=Earliest95>Kirby ''Earliest English Kings'' p. 95</ref> as King [[Wulfhere of Mercia]] gave him large grants of land in Mercia.<ref name=DNB /> Wilfrid may have persuaded King [[Ecgberht of Kent]] in 669 to build a church in an abandoned Roman fort at [[Reculver]].<ref name=Society95>Blair ''Church in Anglo-Saxon Society'' p. 95</ref> When Theodore, the newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, arrived in England in 669<ref name=Theo445>Lapidge "Theodore" ''Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 445</ref> it was clear that something had to be done about the situation in Northumbria. Ceadda's election to York was improper,<ref name=Reassess34 /> and Theodore did not consider Ceadda's consecration to have been valid.<ref name=Intro135>Blair,''Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 135</ref> Consequently, Theodore deposed Ceadda,{{efn|Theodore shortly afterwards reconsecrated Ceadda and gave him the [[Bishop of Lichfield|bishopric of Lichfield]].<ref name=Earliest90>Kirby ''Earliest English Kings'' pp. 90–93</ref> The ''Vita Sancti Wilfrithi'' says that Wilfrid urged Theodore to appoint Ceadda to Lichfield.<ref name=DNB />}} leaving the way open for Wilfrid,<ref name=Reassess34 /> who was finally installed in his see in 669,<ref name=Handbook224 /> the first Saxon to occupy the see of York.<ref name=Brown359>Brown ''Rise of Western Christendom'' Second Edition p. 359</ref> Wilfrid spent the next nine years building churches, including at the monastery at Hexham, and attending to diocesan business.<ref name=DNB /> He continued to exercise control over his monastic houses of Ripon and Hexham while he was bishop.<ref name=Earliest90 /> Oswiu's death on 15&nbsp;February 670 eliminated a source of friction and helped to assure Wilfrid's return.<ref name=Fraser197>Fraser ''Caledonia to Pictland'' p. 197</ref>

While at York, Wilfrid was considered the "bishop of the Northumbrian peoples"; Bede records that Wilfrid's diocese was contiguous with the area ruled by Oswiu.<ref name=Earliest21>Kirby ''Earliest English Kings'' p. 21</ref> The diocese was restricted to north of the Humber, however.<ref name=Earliest22>Kirby ''Earliest English Kings'' p. 22</ref> Wilfrid may also have sought to exercise some ecclesiastical functions in the [[Picts|Pictish kingdom]], as he is accorded the title "bishop of the Northumbrians and the Picts" in 669.<!-- by what? --> Further proof of attempted Northumbrian influence in the Pictish regions is provided by the establishment for the Picts in 681 of a diocese centred on [[Abercorn]], in the old territory of the British kingdom of Gododdin. The grants of land to Wilfrid west of the [[Pennines]] testify to Northumbrian expansion in that area.<ref name=Kings84>Yorke ''Kings and Kingdoms'' pp. 84–85</ref> The ''Vita Sancti Wilfrithi'' claims that Wilfrid had ecclesiastical rule over Britons and Gaels.<ref name=Earliest70>Kirby ''Earliest English Kings'' pp. 70–71</ref> In 679, while Wilfrid was in Rome, he claimed authority over "all the northern part of Britain, Ireland and the islands, which are inhabited by English and British peoples, as well as by Gaelic and Pictish peoples".<ref name=QFraser196>Quoted in Fraser ''Caledonia to Pictland'' p. 196</ref>

=== Diocesan affairs ===
Wilfrid did not attend the [[Council of Hertford]] held in September 672, but he did send representatives. Among the council's resolutions was one postponing a decision on the creation of new dioceses, which affected Wilfrid later.<ref name=ASE133>Stenton ''Anglo-Saxon England'' 3rd ed. pp. 133–134</ref> Another ruling confirmed that the Roman calculation for the date of Easter should be adopted, and that bishops should act only in their own dioceses.<ref name=Intro136>Blair ''Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 136</ref> During the middle 670s Wilfrid acted as middleman in the negotiations to return a [[Merovingian dynasty|Merovingian]] prince, [[Dagobert II]], from his exile in Ireland to Gaul.<ref name=Making265>Kirby ''Making of Early England'' p. 265</ref>{{efn|Dagobert became king of [[Austrasia]] in 676, but was assassinated in 680.<ref name=Long238>Wallace-Hadrill ''Long-haired Kings'' p. 238</ref>}} Wilfrid was one of the first churchmen in Northumbria to use written [[charter]]s as records of gifts to his churches. He ordered the creation of a listing of all benefactions received by Ripon, which was recited at the dedication ceremony.<ref name=DNB />

Wilfrid was an advocate for the use of music in ecclesiastical ceremonies. He sent to Kent for a singing master to instruct his clergy in the Roman style of church music, which involved a double choir who sang in [[antiphon]]s and responses.<ref name=DNB /> Bede says that this singing master was named Æddi (or Eddius in Latin) and had the surname Stephen. Traditionally historians have identified Æddi as Stephen of Ripon, author of the ''Vita Sancti Wilfrithi'', which has led to the assumption that the ''Vita'' was based on the recollections of one of Wilfrid's long-time companions. Recent scholarship has come to believe that the ''Vita'' was not authored by the singing master, but by someone who joined Wilfrid in the last years of Wilfrid's life, not a close companion.<ref name=Bede102>Kirby "Bede" ''English Historical Review'' pp. 102–104</ref>

Wilfrid introduced the ''Rule of Saint Benedict'' into the monasteries he founded.<ref name=DNB /> It appears likely that he was the first to introduce the Benedictine Rule into England, as evidence is lacking that [[Augustine of Canterbury|Augustine]]'s monastery at Canterbury followed the ''Rule''.<ref name=Reassess35 /> He also was one of the first Anglo-Saxon bishops to record the gifts of land and property to his church, which he did at Ripon. Easter tables, used to calculate the correct date to celebrate Easter, were brought in from Rome where the [[Dionysius Exiguus' Easter table|Dionysiac Easter tables]] had been recently introduced.<ref name=DNB /> He set up schools and became a religious advisor to the Northumbrian queen [[Æthelthryth]], first wife of [[Ecgfrith of Northumbria|Ecgfrith]]. Æthelthryth donated the land at [[Hexham]] where Wilfrid founded a monastery and built a church using some recycled stones from the Roman town of [[Corbridge]].<ref name=Society190>Blair ''Church in Anglo-Saxon Society'' pp. 190–191</ref><ref name=ASE135>Stenton ''Anglo-Saxon England'' 3rd ed. p. 135</ref> When Wilfrid arrived in York as bishop the cathedral's roof was on the point of collapse; he had it repaired and covered in lead, and had glass set in the windows.<ref name=Intro146>Blair ''Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 146</ref>

The historian [[Barbara Yorke]] says of Wilfrid at this time that he "seems to have continued a campaign against any survival of 'Irish errors' and distrusted any communities that remained in contact with Iona or other Irish religious houses which did not follow the Roman Easter".<ref name=Conversion12>Yorke ''Conversion of Britain'' p. 12</ref> He also worked to combat pagan practices, building a church at [[Melrose, Scottish Borders|Melrose]] on a pagan site.<ref name=Society186>Blair ''Church in Anglo-Saxon Society'' p. 186</ref> Contemporaries said of him that he was the first native bishop to "introduce the Catholic way of life to the churches of the English".<ref name=QBrown359>Quoted in Brown ''Rise of Western Christendom'' p. 359</ref> He did not neglect his pastoral duties in his diocese,<ref name=Barbarian175 /> making visits throughout the diocese to baptise and perform other episcopal functions, such as consecrating new churches.<ref name=Society94>Blair ''Church in Anglo-Saxon Society'' p. 94</ref> Some of the monasteries in his diocese were put under his protection by their abbots or abbesses, who were seeking someone to help protect their endowments.<ref name=Farmer24>Farmer "Introduction" ''Age of Bede'' p. 24</ref> In ruling over such monasteries, Wilfrid may have been influenced by the Irish model of a group of monasteries all ruled by one person, sometimes while holding episcopal office.<ref name=Century65>Campbell "First Century of Christianity" ''Essays in Anglo-Saxon History'' p. 65</ref>

Wilfrid was criticised for dressing his household and servants in clothing fit for royalty.<ref name=Dodwell179>Dodwell ''Anglo-Saxon Art'' p. 179</ref> He was accompanied on his travels by a retinue of warriors, one of whom, while at York, Wilfrid sent to abduct a young boy who had been promised to the church but whose family had changed their mind.<ref name=Fraser78>Fraser ''Caledonia to Pictland'' p. 78</ref> Wilfrid also educated young men, both for clerical and secular careers.<ref name=Fraser63>Fraser ''Caledonia to Pictland'' p. 63</ref>