Editing Tuvalu (section)

==Geography and environment==
{{main|Geography of Tuvalu}}
{{see also|Agriculture in Tuvalu|Coral reefs of Tuvalu|Protected areas of Tuvalu}}

===Geography===
[[File:Tuvalu-CIA WFB Map.png|thumb|Map of Tuvalu, showing major towns and islands]]
[[File:Tuvalu Funafuti atoll beach.jpg|thumb|right|A beach at Funafuti atoll]]
Tuvalu is a volcanic archipelago, and consists of three [[reef]] islands ([[Nanumanga]], [[Niutao]] and [[Niulakita]]) and six true [[atolls]] ([[Funafuti]], [[Nanumea]], [[Nui (atoll)|Nui]], [[Nukufetau]], [[Nukulaelae]] and [[Vaitupu]]).<ref name="PSK1">{{cite journal |last=Paul S. Kench, Murray R. Ford & Susan D. Owen |title=Patterns of island change and persistence offer alternate adaptation pathways for atoll nations |journal=Nature Communications |date=9 February 2018 |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=605 |doi=10.1038/s41467-018-02954-1 |pmid=29426825 |pmc=5807422 |bibcode=2018NatCo...9..605K}}</ref> Its small, scattered group of low-lying atolls have poor soil and a total land area of only about {{convert|26|km2|0|abbr=off}} making it the [[List of sovereign states by area|fourth smallest country in the world]]. The highest elevation is {{convert|4.6|m|ft}} above sea level on [[Niulakita]]; however, the low-lying atolls and reef islands of Tuvalu are susceptible to seawater flooding during cyclones and storms.<ref name="JCon">{{cite journal |last=Connell |first=John |url=http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/38764/1/v27n1-1-36.pdf |title=Vulnerable Islands: Climate Change, Techonic Change, and Changing Livelihoods in the Western Pacific |journal=The Contemporary Pacific |volume=27 |issue=1 |year=2015 |pages=1–36 |doi=10.1353/cp.2015.0014 |hdl=10125/38764 |s2cid=162562633 |access-date=3 October 2017 |archive-date=19 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719173613/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/38764/1/v27n1-1-36.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9&nbsp;mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.<ref name="PSK2">{{cite journal |last=Paul S. Kench, Murray R. Ford & Susan D. Owen |title=Patterns of island change and persistence offer alternate adaptation pathways for atoll nations (Supplementary Note 2) |journal=Nature Communications |date=9 February 2018 |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=605 |doi=10.1038/s41467-018-02954-1 |pmid=29426825 |pmc=5807422 |bibcode=2018NatCo...9..605K}}</ref> However, over four decades, there had been a net increase in land area of the islets of {{convert|0.74|km2|1|abbr=off}} (2.9%), although the changes are not uniform, with 74% increasing and 27% decreasing in size. A 2018 report stated that the rising sea levels are identified as creating an increased transfer of wave energy across reef surfaces, which shifts sand, resulting in accretion to island shorelines.<ref name="PSK1"/> The Tuvalu Prime Minister objected to the report's implication that there were "alternate" strategies for Islanders to adapt to rising sea levels, and criticised it for neglecting issues such as [[saltwater intrusion]] into groundwater tables as a result of sea level rise.<ref name="ML">{{cite web |last=Movono |first=Lice |title=Tuvalu PM refutes AUT research |work=The Fijian Times |date=12 February 2018 |url=http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=434351 |access-date=13 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213080511/http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=434351 |archive-date=13 February 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Funafuti is the largest atoll, and comprises numerous islets around a central lagoon that is approximately {{convert|25.1|km|mi|abbr=off}} (N–S) by {{convert|18.4|km|mi|abbr=off}} (W-E), centred on 179°7'E and 8°30'S. On the atolls, an annular reef rim surrounds the lagoon with seven natural reef channels.<ref>{{cite journal |author=McNeil, F. S. |year=1954 |title=Organic reefs and banks and associated detrital sediments |journal=American Journal of Science |volume=252 |issue=7 |pages=385–401 |quote=on p. 396 McNeil defines atoll as an annular reef enclosing a lagoon in which there are no promontories other than reefs and composed of reef detritus |doi=10.2475/ajs.252.7.385 |bibcode=1954AmJS..252..385M |doi-access=free}}</ref> Surveys were carried out in May 2010 of the [[Coral reefs of Tuvalu|reef habitats]] of Nanumea, Nukulaelae and Funafuti; a total of 317 fish species were recorded during this ''Tuvalu Marine Life'' study. The surveys identified 66 species that had not previously been recorded in Tuvalu, which brings the total number of identified species to 607.<ref name=TMLSY>{{cite web |author1=Sandrine Job |author2=Daniela Ceccarelli |title=Tuvalu Marine Life Synthesis Report |date=December 2011 |work=an Alofa Tuvalu project with the Tuvalu Fisheries Department |url=http://www.alofatuvalu.tv/US/05_a_tuvalu/05_page_tml/livret2light.pdf |access-date=3 December 2013 |archive-date=31 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031011545/http://www.alofatuvalu.tv/US/05_a_tuvalu/05_page_tml/livret2light.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=TMLScR>{{cite web |author1=Sandrine Job |author2=Daniela Ceccarelli |title=Tuvalu Marine Life Scientific Report |date=December 2012 |work=an Alofa Tuvalu project with the Tuvalu Fisheries Department |url=http://www.alofatuvalu.tv/US/05_a_tuvalu/05_page_tml/livret4light.pdf |access-date=3 December 2013 |archive-date=31 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031011556/http://www.alofatuvalu.tv/US/05_a_tuvalu/05_page_tml/livret4light.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Tuvalu's [[exclusive economic zone]] (EEZ) covers an oceanic area of approximately 900,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>.<ref name="AJT">{{cite book |last1=Dr A J Tilling & Ms E Fihaki |title=Tuvalu National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan |url=http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/tv/tv-nr-04-en.pdf |date=17 November 2009 |publisher=Fourth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity |page=7 |access-date=29 September 2013 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730061104/https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/tv/tv-nr-04-en.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

Tuvalu signed the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (CBD) in 1992, and ratified it in December 2002.<ref name="CBD">{{cite web |last= |first= |title=Tuvalu Sixth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity |publisher=Government of Tuvalu |page= |year=2020 |url=https://www.cbd.int/doc/nr/nr-06/tv-nr-06-en.pdf |access-date=11 November 2023 |archive-date=17 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231117145949/https://www.cbd.int/doc/nr/nr-06/tv-nr-06-en.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="RT16">{{cite web |first1=Randy |last1=Thaman |first2=Faoliu |last2=Teakau |first3=Moe |last3=Saitala |first4=Epu |last4=Falega |first5=Feagaiga |last5=Penivao |first6=Mataio |last6=Tekenene |first7=Semese |last7=Alefaio |work=Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Trade, Tourism, Environment and Labour Government of Tuvalu |title=Tuvalu National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan: Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity |year=2016 |url=https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/tv/tv-nr-05-en.pdf |access-date=25 May 2019 |archive-date=6 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206154235/https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/tv/tv-nr-05-en.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The predominant vegetation type on the islands of Tuvalu is the cultivated coconut woodland, which covers 43% of the land. The native broadleaf forest is limited to 4.1% of the vegetation types.<ref name="RBA">{{cite web |first1=Randy |last1=Thaman |first2=Feagaiga |last2=Penivao |first3=Faoliu |last3=Teakau |first4=Semese |last4=Alefaio |first5=Lamese |last5=Saamu |first6=Moe |last6=Saitala |first7=Mataio |last7=Tekinene |first8=Mile |last8=Fonua |work=Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Conservation Status of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (BES) In Tuvalu |title=Report on the 2016 Funafuti Community-Based Ridge-To-Reef (R2R) |year=2017 |url=https://www.sprep.org/attachments/VirLib/Tuvalu/r2r-biorap.pdf |access-date=25 May 2019 |archive-date=25 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525050122/https://www.sprep.org/attachments/VirLib/Tuvalu/r2r-biorap.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Tuvalu contains the [[Western Polynesian tropical moist forests]] terrestrial ecoregion.<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal |last1=Dinerstein |first1=Eric |last2=Olson |first2=David |last3=Joshi |first3=Anup |last4=Vynne |first4=Carly |last5=Burgess |first5=Neil D. |last6=Wikramanayake |first6=Eric |last7=Hahn |first7=Nathan |last8=Palminteri |first8=Suzanne |last9=Hedao |first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed |last11=Hansen |first11=Matt |last12=Locke |first12=Harvey |last13=Ellis |first13=Erle C |last14=Jones |first14=Benjamin |last15=Barber |first15=Charles Victor |last16=Hayes |first16=Randy |last17=Kormos |first17=Cyril |last18=Martin |first18=Vance |last19=Crist |first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes |last21=Price |first21=Lori |last22=Baillie |first22=Jonathan E. M. |last23=Weeden |first23=Don |last24=Suckling |first24=Kierán |last25=Davis |first25=Crystal |last26=Sizer |first26=Nigel |last27=Moore |first27=Rebecca |last28=Thau |first28=David |last29=Birch |first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter |last31=Turubanova |first31=Svetlana |last32=Tyukavina |first32=Alexandra |last33=de Souza |first33=Nadia |last34=Pintea |first34=Lilian |last35=Brito |first35=José C. |last36=Llewellyn |first36=Othman A. |last37=Miller |first37=Anthony G. |last38=Patzelt |first38=Annette |last39=Ghazanfar |first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan |last41=Klöser |first41=Heinz |last42=Shennan-Farpón |first42=Yara |last43=Kindt |first43=Roeland |last44=Lillesø |first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow |last45=van Breugel |first45=Paulo |last46=Graudal |first46=Lars |last47=Voge |first47=Maianna |last48=Al-Shammari |first48=Khalaf F. |last49=Saleem |first49=Muhammad |display-authors=1 |title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience |volume=67 |issue=6 |year=2017 |pages=534–545 |issn=0006-3568 |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |pmid=28608869 |pmc=5451287 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Environmental pressures===
[[File:Tuvalu - Funafuti - Beach.jpg|thumb|right|A wharf and beach at Funafuti atoll]]
The eastern shoreline of Funafuti Lagoon on [[Fongafale]] was modified during World War II when the airfield (now [[Funafuti International Airport]]) was constructed. The coral base of the atoll was used as fill to create the runway. The resulting [[borrow pit]]s impacted the fresh-water [[aquifer]]. In the low-lying areas of Funafuti, the sea water can be seen bubbling up through the porous coral rock to form pools with each high tide.<ref name=MKM>{{cite web |first=Moya K. |last=Mason |url=http://www.moyak.com/papers/tuvalu-climate-change.html |title=Tuvalu: Flooding, Global Warming, and Media Coverage |access-date=13 October 2011 |archive-date=14 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111014104002/http://www.moyak.com/papers/tuvalu-climate-change.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="AHK1">{{cite web |last=Holowaty Krales |first=Amelia |title=Chasing the Tides, parts I & II |date=20 February 2011 |url=http://ameliaholowatykrales.blogspot.com.au/2011_02_01_archive.html |access-date=20 November 2012 |archive-date=9 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509173923/http://ameliaholowatykrales.blogspot.com.au/2011_02_01_archive.html |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2014, the Tuvalu Borrow Pits Remediation (BPR) project was approved so that 10 borrow pits would be filled with sand from the lagoon, leaving Tafua Pond, which is a natural pond. The New Zealand Government funded the BPR project.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tuvalu to Benefit from International Dredging Aid |date=1 April 2014 |url=http://www.sandandgravel.com/news/article.asp?v1=19459 |publisher=Dredging News |access-date=1 April 2014 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402170548/http://www.sandandgravel.com/news/article.asp?v1=19459 |url-status=live}}</ref> The project was carried out in 2015, with 365,000 sqm of sand being dredged from the lagoon to fill the holes and improve living conditions on the island. This project increased the usable land space on Fongafale by eight per cent.<ref>{{cite web |title=Coast contractor completes aid project in remote Tuvalu |date=27 November 2015 |url=http://www.sunshinecoastdaily.com.au/news/coast-contractor-completes-aid-project-remote-tuva/2855272/ |publisher=SunshineCoastDaily |access-date=28 November 2015 |archive-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208184226/http://www.sunshinecoastdaily.com.au/news/coast-contractor-completes-aid-project-remote-tuva/2855272/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

During World War II, several piers were also constructed on [[Fongafale]] in the Funafuti Lagoon; beach areas were filled and deep-water access channels were excavated. These alterations to the reef and shoreline resulted in changes to wave patterns, with less sand accumulating to form the beaches, compared to former times. Attempts to stabilise the shoreline did not achieve the desired effect.<ref>{{cite web |first=Ralf |last=Carter |title=Wind and Sea Analysis – Funafuti Lagoon, Tuvalu |date=4 July 1986 |url=http://dev.sopac.org.fj/VirLib/TR0058.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118202311/http://dev.sopac.org.fj/VirLib/TR0058.pdf |archive-date=18 January 2012 |publisher=South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme and UNDP Project RAS/81/102 (Technical. Report No. 58 of PE/TU.3) |access-date=4 November 2011}}</ref> In December 2022, work on the Funafuti reclamation project commenced, which is part of the [[Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project]]. Sand was dredged from the lagoon to construct a platform on [[Fongafale]] islet that is {{convert|780|m|ft}} meters long and {{convert|100|m|ft}} meters wide, giving a total area of approximately 7.8 ha. (19.27 acres), which is designed to remain above sea level rise and the reach of storm waves beyond the year 2100.<ref name="LB">{{cite web |last=Bouadze |first=Levan |title=Groundbreaking ceremony in Funafuti for Tuvalu's coastal adaptation |publisher=UNDP Pacific Office in Fiji |page= |date=6 December 2022 |url=https://www.undp.org/pacific/speeches/groundbreaking-ceremony-funafuti-tuvalus-coastal-adaptation |access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref> The platform starts from the northern boundary of the Queen Elizabeth Park (QEP) reclamation area and extends to the northern Tausoa Beach [[Groyne]] and the Catalina Ramp Harbour.<ref name="TCAP-F1">{{cite report |first= |last=FCG ANZDEC Ltd |title=Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project: Environmental and Social Impact Assessment - Funafuti |date=7 October 2020 |publisher=The Pacific Community |pages= |chapter= |url=https://www.adaptation-undp.org/Tuvalu-Coastal-Adaptation-Project-TCAP-ESIA-Funafuti |access-date=3 November 2023}}</ref>

The [[Coral reefs of Tuvalu|reefs at Funafuti]] suffered damage during the [[El Niño]] events that occurred between 1998 and 2001, with an average of 70% of the Staghorn (''[[Acropora]] spp.'') corals becoming bleached as a consequence of the increase in ocean temperatures.<ref name="SOCR2004">{{cite report |last=Jeremy Goldberg and Clive Wilkinson |title=Global Threats to Coral Reefs: Coral Bleaching, Global Climate Change, Disease, Predator Plagues, And Invasive Species |year=2004 |publisher=Status of coral reefs of the world (Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, and the International Coral Reef Initiative) |volume=1 |pages=75 |chapter=1 |issn=1447-6185}}</ref><ref name=RevLT>{{cite web |last=Lusama |first=Tafue |title=Tuvalu plight must be heard by UNFCC |publisher=The Drum – Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=29 November 2011 |url=http://www.abc.net.au/unleashed/3701422.html |access-date=29 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403164107/http://www.abc.net.au/unleashed/3701422.html |archive-date=3 April 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="JW">{{cite web |last=Whitty |first=Julia |title=All the Disappearing Islands |url=https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2003/07/all-disappearing-islands |year=2003 |work=Mother Jones |access-date=15 February 2015 |archive-date=10 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210054243/http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2003/07/all-disappearing-islands |url-status=live}}</ref> A reef restoration project has investigated reef restoration techniques;<ref name=CRRP>{{cite web |author=Govan, Hugh |title=Funafuti Atoll Coral Reef Restoration Project – baseline report |date=June 2007 |work=Coral Reefs in the Pacific (CRISP), Nouméa |url=http://www.sprep.org/pyor/reefdocs/CRISP/C2B1_0706_Tuvalu.pdf |access-date=26 October 2011 |display-authors=etal |archive-date=18 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118075356/http://www.sprep.org/pyor/reefdocs/CRISP/C2B1_0706_Tuvalu.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> and researchers from Japan have investigated rebuilding the [[coral reefs]] through the introduction of [[foraminifera]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hope for Tuvalu in 'sand' that grows, the Asahi Shimbun |url=http://www.asahi.com/english/TKY201009060253.html |access-date=8 September 2010 |archive-date=10 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100910015802/http://www.asahi.com/english/TKY201009060253.html |url-status=live}}</ref> The project of the Japan International Cooperation Agency is designed to increase the resilience of the Tuvalu coast against sea level rise, through ecosystem rehabilitation and regeneration and through support for sand production.<ref name="JICA">{{cite web |title=Project for Eco-technological management of Tuvalu against sea level rise |work=Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) |date=31 March 2009 |url=http://www.jica.go.jp/project/english/tuvalu/0802778/outline/index.html |access-date=20 November 2012 |archive-date=8 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508015328/http://www.jica.go.jp/project/english/tuvalu/0802778/outline/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

The rising population has resulted in an increased demand on fish stocks, which are under stress,<ref name=RevLT/> although the creation of the [[Funafuti Conservation Area]] has provided a fishing exclusion area to help sustain the fish population across the Funafuti lagoon.<ref name="FRFSP">{{cite web |last= |first= |title=Funafuti Reef Fisheries Stewardship Plan (FRFSP) |publisher=Tuvalu Fisheries (Tuvalu Ministry of Natural Resources) |page= |date=15 November 2017 |url=http://www.tuvalufisheries.tv/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/FRFSP-231117-web.pdf |access-date=11 August 2021 |archive-date=31 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031004907/http://www.tuvalufisheries.tv/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/FRFSP-231117-web.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> Population pressure on the resources of Funafuti, and inadequate sanitation systems, have resulted in pollution.<ref name="Krales"/><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2011/mar/04/tuvalu-sustainable-way-of-life-disappears |location=London |work=[[The Guardian]] |first1=Florent |last1=Baarsch |title=Warming oceans and human waste hit Tuvalu's sustainable way of life |date=4 March 2011}}</ref> The Waste Operations and Services Act of 2009 provides the legal framework for waste management and pollution control projects funded by the European Union directed at organic waste composting in eco-sanitation systems.<ref name=TWWSP>{{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/documents/aap/2009/af_aap_2009_tuv.pdf |title=Tuvalu / Water, Waste and Sanitation Project (TWWSP): CRIS FED/2009/021-195, ANNEX |work=European Union |access-date=24 October 2011 |archive-date=26 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120126064920/http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/documents/aap/2009/af_aap_2009_tuv.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The Environment Protection (Litter and Waste Control) Regulation 2013 is intended to improve the management of the importation of non-biodegradable materials. [[Plastic waste]] is a problem in Tuvalu, for much imported food and other commodities are supplied in plastic containers or packaging.

In 2023 the governments of Tuvalu and other islands vulnerable to climate change ([[Fiji]], [[Niue]], the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Tonga]] and [[Vanuatu]]) launched the "Port Vila Call for a Just Transition to a Fossil Fuel Free Pacific", calling for the phase out [[fossil fuel]]s and the 'rapid and [[just transition]]' to [[renewable energy]] and strengthening [[environmental law]] including introducing the crime of [[ecocide]].<ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=Six Island Nations Commit to 'Fossil Fuel-Free Pacific,' Demand Global Just Transition |url=https://www.commondreams.org/news/fossil-fuel-free-pacific |access-date=2023-07-01 |website=www.commondreams.org |language=en |archive-date=16 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230616003648/https://www.commondreams.org/news/fossil-fuel-free-pacific |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-22 |title=Port Vila call to phase out fossil fuels |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/486463/port-vila-call-to-phase-out-fossil-fuels |access-date=2023-07-01 |website=[[RNZ]] |language=en-nz |archive-date=1 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701175204/https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/486463/port-vila-call-to-phase-out-fossil-fuels |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ligaiula |first=Pita |date=2023-03-17 |title=Port Vila call for a just transition to a fossil fuel free Pacific {{!}} PINA |url=https://pina.com.fj/2023/03/17/port-vila-call-for-a-just-transition-to-a-fossil-fuel-free-pacific/ |access-date=2023-07-01 |language=en-US |archive-date=1 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701175216/https://pina.com.fj/2023/03/17/port-vila-call-for-a-just-transition-to-a-fossil-fuel-free-pacific/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Climate===
{{see also|2011 Tuvalu drought}}
[[File:Tuvalu Meteorology Service.jpg|thumb|[[Tuvalu Meteorological Service]], [[Fongafale]], Funafuti atoll]]
Tuvalu experiences two distinct seasons, a wet season from November to April and a dry season from May to October.<ref name="CFCT">{{cite web |title=Current and Future Climate of Tuvalu |work=[[Tuvalu Meteorological Service]], [[Australian Bureau of Meteorology]] & [[Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation]] (CSIRO) |year=2011 |url=http://www.pacificclimatechangescience.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/4_PCCSP_Tuvalu_8pp.pdf |access-date=7 September 2015 |archive-date=19 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119130203/https://www.pacificclimatechangescience.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/4_PCCSP_Tuvalu_8pp.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Westerly gales and heavy rain are the predominant weather conditions from November to April, the period that is known as ''Tau-o-lalo'', with tropical temperatures moderated by easterly winds from May to October.

Tuvalu experiences the effects of [[El Niño]] and [[La Niña]], which is caused by changes in ocean temperatures in the equatorial and central Pacific. El Niño effects increase the chances of tropical storms and [[cyclones]], while La Niñan effects increase the chances of drought. Typically the islands of Tuvalu receive between {{convert|200|and|400|mm|0|abbr=on}} of rainfall per month. The central Pacific Ocean experiences changes from periods of La Niña to periods of El Niño.<ref name="NOAA1">{{cite web |title=El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Diagnostic Discussion |work=Climate Prediction Center National Centers for Environmental Prediction – NOAA/National Weather Service |date=10 April 2014 |url=http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/enso_advisory/ensodisc.html |access-date=15 April 2014 |archive-date=14 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614040420/http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/enso_advisory/ensodisc.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

<div style="width:75%">

{{Weather box
|location = [[Funafuti]] (Köppen Af)
|single line = Yes
|collapsed = Yes 
|metric first = Yes
|width = auto 
|Jan record high C = 33.8
|Feb record high C = 34.4
|Mar record high C = 34.4
|Apr record high C = 33.2
|May record high C = 33.9
|Jun record high C = 33.9
|Jul record high C = 32.8
|Aug record high C = 32.9
|Sep record high C = 32.8
|Oct record high C = 34.4
|Nov record high C = 33.9
|Dec record high C = 33.9
|year record high C = 34.4
|Jan high C = 30.7
|Feb high C = 30.8
|Mar high C = 30.6
|Apr high C = 31.0
|May high C = 30.9
|Jun high C = 30.6
|Jul high C = 30.4
|Aug high C = 30.4
|Sep high C = 30.7
|Oct high C = 31.0
|Nov high C = 31.2
|Dec high C = 31.0
|year high C = 30.8
|Jan mean C = 28.2
|Feb mean C = 28.1
|Mar mean C = 28.1
|Apr mean C = 28.2
|May mean C = 28.4
|Jun mean C = 28.3
|Jul mean C = 28.1
|Aug mean C = 28.1
|Sep mean C = 28.2
|Oct mean C = 28.2
|Nov mean C = 28.4
|Dec mean C = 28.3
|year mean C = 28.2
|Jan low C = 25.5
|Feb low C = 25.3
|Mar low C = 25.4
|Apr low C = 25.7
|May low C = 25.8
|Jun low C = 25.9
|Jul low C = 25.7
|Aug low C = 25.8
|Sep low C = 25.8
|Oct low C = 25.7
|Nov low C = 25.8
|Dec low C = 25.7
|year low C = 25.8
|Jan record low C = 22.0
|Feb record low C = 22.2
|Mar record low C = 22.8
|Apr record low C = 23.0
|May record low C = 20.5
|Jun record low C = 23.0
|Jul record low C = 21.0
|Aug record low C = 16.1
|Sep record low C = 20.0
|Oct record low C = 21.0
|Nov record low C = 22.8
|Dec record low C = 22.8
|year record low C = 16.1
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 413.7
|Feb precipitation mm = 360.6
|Mar precipitation mm = 324.3
|Apr precipitation mm = 255.8
|May precipitation mm = 259.8
|Jun precipitation mm = 216.6
|Jul precipitation mm = 253.1
|Aug precipitation mm = 275.9
|Sep precipitation mm = 217.5
|Oct precipitation mm = 266.5
|Nov precipitation mm = 275.9
|Dec precipitation mm = 393.9
|year precipitation mm = 3512.6
|unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm
|Jan precipitation days = 20
|Feb precipitation days = 19
|Mar precipitation days = 20
|Apr precipitation days = 19
|May precipitation days = 18
|Jun precipitation days = 19
|Jul precipitation days = 19
|Aug precipitation days = 18
|Sep precipitation days = 16
|Oct precipitation days = 18
|Nov precipitation days = 17
|Dec precipitation days = 19
|year precipitation days = 223
|Jan humidity = 82
|Feb humidity = 82
|Mar humidity = 82
|Apr humidity = 82
|May humidity = 82
|Jun humidity = 82
|Jul humidity = 83
|Aug humidity = 82
|Sep humidity = 81
|Oct humidity = 81
|Nov humidity = 80
|Dec humidity = 81
|year humidity = 82
|Jan sun = 179.8
|Feb sun = 161.0
|Mar sun = 186.0
|Apr sun = 201.0
|May sun = 195.3
|Jun sun = 201.0
|Jul sun = 195.3
|Aug sun = 220.1
|Sep sun = 210.0
|Oct sun = 232.5
|Nov sun = 189.0
|Dec sun = 176.7
|year sun = 
|Jand sun = 5.8
|Febd sun = 5.7
|Mard sun = 6.0
|Aprd sun = 6.7
|Mayd sun = 6.3
|Jund sun = 6.7
|Juld sun = 6.3
|Augd sun = 7.1
|Sepd sun = 7.0
|Octd sun = 7.5
|Novd sun = 6.3
|Decd sun = 5.7
|yeard sun = 6.4
|source 1 = [[Deutscher Wetterdienst]]<ref name = FunafutiDWD>{{cite web |url=http://www.dwd.de/DWD/klima/beratung/ak/ak_916430_kt.pdf |title=Klimatafel von Funafuti / Tuvalu (Ellice-Inseln) |work=Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world |publisher=Deutscher Wetterdienst |language=de |access-date=22 November 2016 |archive-date=20 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191020001500/https://www.dwd.de/DWD/klima/beratung/ak/ak_916430_kt.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>
}}

</div>

===Impact of climate change===
{{main|Climate change in Tuvalu}}
As low-lying islands lacking a surrounding shallow shelf, the communities of Tuvalu are especially susceptible to changes in sea level and undissipated storms.<ref name="SS">{{cite web |last=Farbotko |first=Carol |title=Saving Tuvaluan Culture from Imminent Danger |url=http://www.unescoapceiu.org/data/file/sangsaeng/740725887_489f1ed7_sangsaeng21.pdf |access-date=20 November 2012 |work=Climate Change: Risks and Solutions, 'Sang Saeng', pages 11–13, No 21 Spring 2008. Asia-Pacific Centre of Education for International Understanding (APCEIU) under the auspices of UNESCO |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620194747/http://www.unescoapceiu.org/data/file/sangsaeng/740725887_489f1ed7_sangsaeng21.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="IV">{{cite web |last=Lazrus |first=Heather |title=Island Vulnerability (Tuvalu) |url=http://www.islandvulnerability.org/tuvalu.html |access-date=20 November 2012 |archive-date=4 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704094233/http://www.islandvulnerability.org/tuvalu.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year=2009 |title=Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change Tuvalu Report of In-Country Consultations |url=http://www.sprep.org/att/irc/ecopies/countries/tuvalu/49.pdf |access-date=13 October 2011 |work=Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Program (SPREC) |archive-date=18 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118160535/http://www.sprep.org/att/irc/ecopies/countries/tuvalu/49.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> At its highest, Tuvalu is only {{convert|4.6|m|ft}} above sea level. Tuvaluan leaders have been concerned about the effects of rising sea levels.<ref>{{cite web |date=22 July 1997 |title=Sea Level Rise A Big Problem For Tuvalu, Prime Minister Says |url=http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/24/023.html |access-date=24 December 2009 |archive-date=25 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090625023538/http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/24/023.html |url-status=live}}</ref> It is estimated that a sea level rise of {{convert|20|–|40|cm|in|abbr=off}} in the next 100 years could make Tuvalu uninhabitable.<ref name="Patel">{{cite journal |author=Patel, S. S. |year=2006 |title=A sinking feeling |journal=Nature |volume=440 |issue=7085 |pages=734–736 |bibcode=2006Natur.440..734P |doi=10.1038/440734a |pmid=16598226 |s2cid=1174790 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="HJA">{{cite web |last=Hunter |first=J. A. |year=2002 |title=Note on Relative Sea Level Change at Funafuti, Tuvalu |url=http://probeinternational.org/library/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/A-Note-on-Relative-Sea-Level-Change.pdf |access-date=2 March 2017 |work=Antarctic Cooperative Research Centre, Australia |archive-date=2 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302112642/http://probeinternational.org/library/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/A-Note-on-Relative-Sea-Level-Change.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> A study published in 2018 estimated the change in land area of Tuvalu's nine atolls and 101 reef islands between 1971 and 2014, indicating that 75% of the islands had grown in area, with an overall increase of more than 2%.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 February 2018 |title='Sinking' Pacific nation is getting bigger, showing islands are geologically dynamic: study {{!}} The Japan Times|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/02/11/asia-pacific/science-health-asia-pacific/sinking-pacific-nation-getting-bigger-showing-islands-geologically-dynamic-study/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180211084934/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/02/11/asia-pacific/science-health-asia-pacific/sinking-pacific-nation-getting-bigger-showing-islands-geologically-dynamic-study/|archive-date=11 February 2018|access-date=5 December 2019}}</ref> [[Enele Sopoaga]], the prime minister of Tuvalu at the time, responded to the research by stating that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land.<ref name="PSK">{{cite journal |last1=Kench |first1=Paul S |last2=Ford |first2=Murray R |last3=Owen |first3=Susan D |year=2018 |title=Patterns of island change and persistence offer alternate adaptation pathways for atoll nations |journal=Nature Communications |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=605 |bibcode=2018NatCo...9..605K |doi=10.1038/s41467-018-02954-1 |pmc=5807422 |pmid=29426825}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=19 March 2018 |title=Tuvalu PM Refutes Aut Research |language=en-US |url=https://kmt.news/2018/03/19/tuvalu-pm-refutes-aut-research/ |access-date=26 March 2019 |archive-date=26 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326140508/https://kmt.news/2018/03/19/tuvalu-pm-refutes-aut-research/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.<ref name="G19">{{cite news |last=Eleanor Ainge Roy |date=17 May 2019 |title='One day we'll disappear': Tuvalu's sinking islands |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/may/16/one-day-disappear-tuvalu-sinking-islands-rising-seas-climate-change |access-date=17 May 2019}}</ref>

Whether there are measurable changes in the sea level relative to the islands of Tuvalu is a contentious issue.<ref name="VG">{{cite web |author=Vincent Gray |date=15 June 2006 |title=The Truth about Tuvalu |url=http://www.climatescience.org.nz/blog/the%20truth%20-%20tuvalu%20is%20not%20sinking |access-date=14 April 2018 |archive-date=14 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414091633/http://www.climatescience.org.nz/blog/the%20truth%20-%20tuvalu%20is%20not%20sinking |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="IB111213">{{cite news |last=de Freitas |first=Chris |date=11 December 2013 |title=Human interference real threat to Pacific atolls |work=NZ Herald/Pacnews |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11166377 |access-date=6 January 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180106173036/http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11166377 |url-status=live}}</ref> There were problems associated with the pre-1993 sea level records from Funafuti which resulted in improvements in the recording technology to provide more reliable data for analysis.<ref name="HJA" /> The degree of uncertainty as to estimates of sea level change relative to the islands of Tuvalu was reflected in the conclusions made in 2002 from the available data.<ref name="HJA" /> The uncertainty as to the accuracy of the data from this tide gauge resulted in a modern Aquatrak acoustic gauge being installed in 1993 by the [[Bureau of Meteorology|Australian National Tidal Facility]] (NTF) as part of the AusAID-sponsored South Pacific Sea Level and Climate Monitoring Project.<ref name="JRH">{{cite web |last=Hunter |first=John R. |year=2002 |title=A Note on Relative Sea Level Change at Funafuti, Tuvalu |url=http://probeinternational.org/library/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/A-Note-on-Relative-Sea-Level-Change.pdf |access-date=6 January 2018 |publisher=Antarctic Cooperative Research Centre |archive-date=2 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302112642/http://probeinternational.org/library/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/A-Note-on-Relative-Sea-Level-Change.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> The 2011 report of the ''Pacific Climate Change Science Program'' published by the Australian Government,<ref>{{cite web |date=November 2011 |title=Climate Change in the Pacific: Scientific Assessment and New Research |url=http://www.cawcr.gov.au/projects/PCCSP/publications.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110312001741/http://www.cawcr.gov.au/projects/PCCSP/publications.html |archive-date=12 March 2011 |access-date=30 November 2011 |work=Pacific Climate Change Science Program (Australian Government)}}</ref> concludes: "The sea-level rise near Tuvalu measured by satellite altimeters since 1993 is about {{convert|5|mm|1|abbr=on}} per year."<ref name="CCP2ch15">{{cite book |title=Climate Change in the Pacific: Volume 2: Country Reports |publisher=Pacific Climate Change Science Program |year=2011 |location=Australia Government |chapter=Ch.15 Tuvalu |chapter-url=http://www.pacificclimatechangescience.org/publications/reports/climate-variability-extremes-and-change-in-the-western-tropical-pacific-2014/ |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-date=29 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629174234/https://www.pacificclimatechangescience.org/publications/reports/climate-variability-extremes-and-change-in-the-western-tropical-pacific-2014/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Tuvalu has adopted a national plan of action as the observable transformations over the last ten to fifteen years show Tuvaluans that there have been changes to the sea levels.<ref name="NAP">{{cite web |date=May 2007 |title=Tuvalu's National Adaptation Programme of Action |url=http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/tuv01.pdf |access-date=7 September 2015 |work=Department of Environment of Tuvalu |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303172644/http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/tuv01.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> These include sea water bubbling up through the porous coral rock to form pools at high tide and the flooding of low-lying areas including the airport during [[Perigean spring tide|spring tides]] and [[king tide]]s.<ref name="MKM" /><ref name="AHK1" /><ref name="autogenerated3">{{cite web |last=Mason |first=Moya K. |year=1983 |title=Tuvalu: Flooding, Global Warming, and Media Coverage |url=http://www.moyak.com/papers/tuvalu-climate-change.html |access-date=15 February 2015 |archive-date=14 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111014104002/http://www.moyak.com/papers/tuvalu-climate-change.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Dekker |first=Rodney |date=9 December 2011 |title=Island neighbours at the mercy of rising tides |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-12-09/tuvalu-kiribati-climate-change/3720408 |access-date=9 December 2011 |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |archive-date=2 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302174115/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-12-09/tuvalu-kiribati-climate-change/3720408 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Cham">{{cite journal |author1=Anne Fauvre Chambers |author2=Keith Stanley Chambers |year=2007 |title=Five Takes on Climate and Cultural Change in Tuvalu |journal=The Contemporary Pacific |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=294–306 |doi=10.1353/cp.2007.0004 |s2cid=161220261}}</ref>

In November 2022, [[Simon Kofe]], Minister for Justice, Communication & Foreign Affairs, proclaimed that in response to rising sea levels and the perceived failures by the outside world to combat global warming, the country would be uploading a virtual version of itself to the metaverse in an effort to preserve its history and culture.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Craymer |first=Lucy |date=2022-11-15 |title=Tuvalu turns to the metaverse as rising seas threaten existence |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/cop/tuvalu-turns-metaverse-rising-seas-threaten-existence-2022-11-15/ |access-date=2022-11-17 |archive-date=17 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117213358/https://www.reuters.com/business/cop/tuvalu-turns-metaverse-rising-seas-threaten-existence-2022-11-15/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

The major concerns about climate change has led to the launching and development of the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA). These adaptation measures are needed to decrease the amount and volume of the negative effects from climate change. NAPA has selected seven adaptation projects with all different themes. These are: coastal, agricultural, water, health, fisheries (two different projects) and disaster. For example, a "target" of one of these projects, like the project "coastal", is "increasing resilience of coastal areas and settlement to climate change". And for the project "water" it is "adaptation to frequent water shortages through increasing household water capacity, water collection accessories, and water conservation techniques".<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=NAPA DRAFT FINAL: Tuvalu's National Adaptation Programme of Action |url=https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/tuv01.pdf |access-date=22 December 2021 |archive-date=12 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212071514/http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/tuv01.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The [[Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project]] (TCAP) was launched in 2017 for the purpose on enhancing the resilience of the islands of Tuvalu to meet the challenges resulting from higher sea levels.<ref name="GCF">{{cite web |last=Bouadze |first=Levan |title=Groundbreaking ceremony in Funafuti for Tuvalu's coastal adaptation |publisher=UNDP Pacific Office in Fiji |page= |date=6 December 2022 |url=https://www.undp.org/pacific/speeches/groundbreaking-ceremony-funafuti-tuvalus-coastal-adaptation |access-date=1 November 2023 |archive-date=1 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101063815/https://www.undp.org/pacific/speeches/groundbreaking-ceremony-funafuti-tuvalus-coastal-adaptation |url-status=live}}</ref> Tuvalu was the first country in the Pacific to access climate finance from [[Green Climate Fund]], with the support of the [[United Nations Development Programme|UNDP]].<ref name="GCF"/> In December 2022, work on the Funafuti reclamation project commenced. The project is to dredge sand from the lagoon to construct a platform on [[Funafuti]] that is {{convert|780|m|ft}} meters long and {{convert|100|m|ft}} meters wide, giving a total area of approximately 7.8 ha. (19.27 acres), which is designed to remain above sea level rise and the reach of storm waves beyond the year 2100.<ref name="GCF"/> The Australian [[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade]] (DFAT) also provided funding for the TCAP. Further projects that are part of TCAP are capital works on the outer islands of [[Nanumea]] and [[Nanumaga]] aimed at reducing exposure to coastal damage resulting from storms.<ref name="GCF"/>

===Cyclones and king tides===
====Cyclones====
[[File:Ocean side Funafuti.jpg|thumb|right|Ocean side of Funafuti atoll showing the storm dunes, the highest point on the atoll]]
Because of the low elevation, the islands that make up this country are vulnerable to the effects of [[tropical cyclone]]s and by the threat of current and future [[sea level rise]].<ref name="Krales">{{cite news |first=Amelia Holowaty |last=Krales |url=http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/10/18/as-danger-laps-at-its-shores-tuvalu-pleads-for-action/ |title=As Danger Laps at Its Shores, Tuvalu Pleads for Action |date=18 October 2011 |work=The New York Times – Green: A Blog about Energy and the Environment |access-date=24 October 2011 |archive-date=20 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320014634/http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/10/18/as-danger-laps-at-its-shores-tuvalu-pleads-for-action/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="AMH1">{{cite magazine |last=Marantz |first=Andrew |magazine=Harpers |title=A rising tide: Planning the future of a sinking island |date=December 2011 |url=http://harpers.org/archive/2011/12/a-rising-tide/ |access-date=21 March 2015 |archive-date=16 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316131605/http://harpers.org/archive/2011/12/a-rising-tide/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="AMH2">{{cite magazine |last=Marantz |first=Andrew |magazine=The New Yorker |title=The Wages of Cyclone Pam |date=18 March 2015 |url=http://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/the-wages-of-cyclone-pam |access-date=21 March 2015 |archive-date=21 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321172631/http://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/the-wages-of-cyclone-pam? |url-status=live}}</ref> A warning system, which uses the [[Iridium satellite constellation|Iridium]] satellite network, was introduced in 2016 to allow outlying islands to be better prepared for natural disasters.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[Radio New Zealand]] |date=10 June 2016 |access-date=10 June 2016 |title=Tuvalu to introduce new early warning system |url=http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/306132/tuvalu-to-intoduce-new-early-warning-system |archive-date=11 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611140651/http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/306132/tuvalu-to-intoduce-new-early-warning-system |url-status=live}}</ref>

The highest elevation is {{convert|4.6|m|ft}} above sea level on [[Niulakita]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Sea level rise: Some implications for Tuvalu |journal=[[The Environmentalist]] |first=James |last=Lewis |volume=9 |issue=4 |date=December 1989 |doi=10.1007/BF02241827 |pages=269–275 |bibcode=1989ThEnv...9..269L |s2cid=84796023}}</ref> Tuvalu thus has the second-lowest maximum elevation of any country (after the [[Maldives]]). The highest elevations are typically in narrow storm dunes on the ocean side of the islands which are prone to overtopping in tropical cyclones, as occurred with [[Cyclone Bebe]], which was a very early-season storm that passed through the Tuvaluan atolls in October 1972.<ref name="BOM1975">Bureau of Meteorology (1975) ''Tropical Cyclones in the Northern Australian Regions 1971–1972'' Australian Government Publishing Service</ref> Cyclone Bebe submerged Funafuti, eliminating 95% of structures on the island, with 6 people lost in the cyclone.<ref name="JRBebe">{{cite web |last=Resture |first=Jane |title=Hurricane Bebe Left 19 People Dead And Thousands Misplaced In Fiji and Tuvalu |publisher=Janeresture.com |date=14 October 2022 |url=https://www.janeresture.com/hurricane-bebe/ |access-date=3 December 2023 |archive-date=3 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203112934/https://www.janeresture.com/hurricane-bebe/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Sources of drinking water were contaminated as a result of the system's storm surge and the flooding of the sources of fresh water.<ref name="PIM1973-5">{{cite web |last= |first= |work=44(5) Pacific Islands Monthly |title=Life bounces back in the Ellice |date=1 May 1966 |url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-336976092/view?sectionId=nla.obj-340950828&partId=nla.obj-337014010#page/n22/mode/1up |access-date=2 October 2021 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002103643/https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-336976092/view?sectionId=nla.obj-340950828&partId=nla.obj-337014010#page/n22/mode/1up |url-status=live}}</ref>

George Westbrook, a trader on Funafuti, recorded a cyclone that struck Funafuti on 23–24 December 1883.<ref name="BKE">{{cite journal |last1=McLean |first1=R.F. |last2=Munro |first2=D. |url=http://uspaquatic.library.usp.ac.fj/gsdl/collect/spjnas/index/assoc/HASH0199.dir/doc.pdf |title=Late 19th century Tropical Storms and Hurricanes in Tuvalu |journal=South Pacific Journal of Natural History |volume=11 |year=1991 |pages=213–219 |access-date=10 April 2019 |archive-date=10 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410113306/http://uspaquatic.library.usp.ac.fj/gsdl/collect/spjnas/index/assoc/HASH0199.dir/doc.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> A cyclone struck Nukulaelae on 17–18 March 1886.<ref name="BKE"/>
A cyclone caused severe damage to the islands in 1894.<ref name="TAH2">{{cite book |first1=Pasoni |last1=Taafaki |editor-first1=Hugh |editor-last1=Laracy |title=Tuvalu: A History |year=1983 |publisher=Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific and Government of Tuvalu |page=27 |chapter=Chapter 2 – The Old Order}}</ref>

Tuvalu experienced an average of three cyclones per decade between the 1940s and 1970s; however, eight occurred in the 1980s.<ref name="JCon"/> The impact of individual cyclones is subject to variables including the force of the winds and also whether a cyclone coincides with high tides. Funafuti's [[Pukasavilivili|Tepuka Vili Vili]] [[islet]] was devastated by [[Cyclone Meli]] in 1979, with all its vegetation and most of its sand swept away during the cyclone. Along with a [[1989–90 South Pacific cyclone season#Samoa Depression|tropical depression]] that affected the islands a few days later, [[Cyclone Ofa|Severe Tropical Cyclone Ofa]] had a major impact on Tuvalu with most islands reporting damage to vegetation and crops.<ref name="STD">{{cite report |author=Koop, Neville L |others=Fiji Meteorological Service |issue=1 |volume=35 |oclc=648466886 |type=Mariners Weather Log |date=Winter 1991 |publisher=United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Oceanographic Data Service |issn=0025-3367 |page=53 |editor=DeAngellis, Richard M |title=Samoa Depression}}</ref><ref name="Tuv Disaster">{{cite report |publisher=Australian Overseas Disaster Response Organisation |isbn=1875405054 |pages=2–3, 6 |date=April 1992 |url=http://www.pacificdisaster.net/pdnadmin/data/original/JB-DM_148_TUV_1991_disaster_workshop_report.pdf |title=Report on the disaster preparedness workshop held in Funafuti, Tuvalu, 14 – 17 October, 1991 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201231448/http://www.pacificdisaster.net/pdnadmin/data/original/JB-DM_148_TUV_1991_disaster_workshop_report.pdf |archive-date=1 February 2014}}</ref> [[Cyclone Gavin]] was first identified during 2 March 1997, and was the first of three tropical cyclones to affect Tuvalu during the 1996–97 cyclone season, with Cyclones [[Cyclone Hina|Hina]] and [[Cyclone Keli|Keli]] following later in the season.

In March 2015, the winds and storm surge created by [[Cyclone Pam]] resulted in waves of {{convert|3|to|5|m|ft}} breaking over the reef of the outer islands, causing damage to houses, crops and infrastructure.<ref name="TuvaluReport">{{cite report |work=International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies |publisher=ReliefWeb |date=16 March 2015 |access-date=17 March 2015 |title=Emergency Plan of Action (EPoA) Tuvalu: Tropical Cyclone Pam |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/MDRTV001dref.pdf}}</ref><ref name="RNZI19">{{cite web |work=Radio New Zealand International |title=One Tuvalu island evacuated after flooding from Pam |date=18 March 2015 |url=http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/268988/one-tuvalu-island-evacuated-after-flooding-from-pam |access-date=18 March 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402170600/http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/268988/one-tuvalu-island-evacuated-after-flooding-from-pam |url-status=live}}</ref> A state of emergency was declared. On Nui, the sources of fresh water were destroyed or contaminated.<ref name="SBS15">{{cite web |work=SBS Australia |title=Flooding in Vanuatu, Kiribati and Tuvalu as Cyclone Pam strengthens |date=13 March 2015 |url=http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/2015/03/13/flooding-vanuatu-kiribati-and-tuvalu-cyclone-pam-strengthens |access-date=15 March 2015 |archive-date=3 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803054033/http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/2015/03/13/flooding-vanuatu-kiribati-and-tuvalu-cyclone-pam-strengthens |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="RNZI14">{{cite web |work=Radio New Zealand International |title=State of emergency in Tuvalu |date=14 March 2015 |url=http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/268612/state-of-emergency-in-tuvalu |access-date=15 March 2015 |archive-date=16 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316020244/http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/268612/state-of-emergency-in-tuvalu |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="RNZI15">{{cite web |work=Radio New Zealand International |title=45 percent of Tuvalu population displaced – PM |date=15 March 2015 |url=http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/268686/45-percent-of-tuvalu-population-displaced-pm |access-date=15 March 2015 |archive-date=16 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316045804/http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/268686/45-percent-of-tuvalu-population-displaced-pm |url-status=live}}</ref> The flooding in Nui and Nukufetau caused many families to shelter in evacuation centres or with other families.<ref name=RW22>{{cite web |url=http://reliefweb.int/report/tuvalu/tuvalu-tropical-cyclone-pam-situation-report-no-1-22-march-2015 |title=Tuvalu: Tropical Cyclone Pam Situation Report No. 1 (as of 22 March 2015) |date=22 March 2015 |publisher=Relief Web |access-date=25 March 2015 |archive-date=27 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150327212850/http://reliefweb.int/report/tuvalu/tuvalu-tropical-cyclone-pam-situation-report-no-1-22-march-2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nui suffered the most damage of the three central islands (Nui, Nukufetau and Vaitupu);<ref name="UNDP2">{{cite web |work=United Nations Development Programme |title=Forgotten paradise under water |date=1 May 2015 |url=https://undp.exposure.co/forgotten-paradise-under-water |access-date=8 June 2015 |archive-date=9 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150609023832/https://undp.exposure.co/forgotten-paradise-under-water |url-status=live}}</ref> with both Nui and Nukufetau suffering the loss of 90% of the crops.<ref name=RW30>{{cite web |url=http://reliefweb.int/report/tuvalu/tuvalu-tropical-cyclone-pam-situation-report-no-2-30-march-2015 |title=Tuvalu: Tropical Cyclone Pam Situation Report No. 2 (as of 30 March 2015) |date=30 March 2015 |publisher=Relief Web |access-date=30 March 2015 |archive-date=8 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150708082413/http://reliefweb.int/report/tuvalu/tuvalu-tropical-cyclone-pam-situation-report-no-2-30-march-2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Of the three northern islands (Nanumanga, Niutao and Nanumea), Nanumanga suffered the most damage, with from 60 to 100 houses flooded, with the waves also causing damage to the health facility.<ref name=RW30/> [[Vasafua]] islet, part of the [[Funafuti Conservation Area]], was severely damaged by Cyclone Pam. The coconut palms were washed away, leaving the islet as a sand bar.<ref name="VIV">{{cite web |last=Wilson |first=David |work=Tuvalu-odyssey.net |title=Vasafua Islet vanishes |date=4 July 2015 |url=http://www.tuvalu-odyssey.net/vasafua-islet-vanishes/ |access-date=22 July 2015 |archive-date=22 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722081428/http://www.tuvalu-odyssey.net/vasafua-islet-vanishes/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="TO13">{{cite web |last=Endou |first=Shuuichi |work=Tuvalu Overview (Japanese) |title=バサフア島、消失・・・(Vasafua Islet vanishes) |date=28 March 2015 |url=http://www.tuvalu-overview.tv/blog/news/3253/ |access-date=22 July 2015 |archive-date=23 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150523180705/http://www.tuvalu-overview.tv/blog/news/3253/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

The Tuvalu Government carried out assessments of the damage caused by Cyclone Pam to the islands and has provided medical aid, food as well as assistance for the cleaning-up of storm debris. Government and Non-Government Organisations provided assistance technical, funding and material support to Tuvalu to assist with recovery, including [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[UNICEF East Asia and Pacific Regional Office|UNICEF EAPRO]], [[Asia-Pacific Development Information Programme|UNDP Asia-Pacific Development Information Programme]], [[United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs|OCHA]], [[World Bank]], [[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade|DFAT]], [[New Zealand Red Cross]] & [[International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies|IFRC]], [[Fiji National University]] and governments of New Zealand, Netherlands, UAE, Taiwan and the United States.<ref name=WHO04>{{cite web |url=http://reliefweb.int/report/tuvalu/tuvalu-situation-update-3-april-2015 |title=Tuvalu situation update: Securing health from disastrous impacts of cyclone Pam in Tuvalu |date=3 April 2015 |publisher=Relief Web/World health Organisation – Western Pacific Region |access-date=8 June 2015 |archive-date=8 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150608124717/http://reliefweb.int/report/tuvalu/tuvalu-situation-update-3-april-2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Despite passing over {{convert|500|km|mi|round=5|abbr=on}} to the south of the island nation, [[Cyclone Tino]] and its associated convergence zone impacted the whole of Tuvalu between January 16&nbsp;- 19 of 2020.<ref name="Tuvalu SWB 1">{{cite report |title=Special Weather Bulletin Number 1 for Tuvalu January 16, 2020 10z |publisher=Fiji Meteorological Service |date=January 16, 2020}}</ref><ref name="Swept">{{cite news |title="It swept right over": Tuvalu inundated by waves whipped up by Cyclone Tino |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/407611/it-swept-right-over-tuvalu-inundated-by-waves-whipped-up-by-cyclone-tino |access-date=February 8, 2020 |work=[[Radio New Zealand]] |date=January 20, 2020 |archive-date=9 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109134711/https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/407611/it-swept-right-over-tuvalu-inundated-by-waves-whipped-up-by-cyclone-tino |url-status=live}}</ref>

====King tides====
Tuvalu is also affected by [[perigean spring tide]] events which raise the sea level higher than a normal [[high tide]].<ref>{{cite news |first=David |last=Shukman |title=Tuvalu struggles to hold back tide |date=22 January 2008 |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7203313.stm |access-date=5 August 2008 |archive-date=5 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305222814/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7203313.stm |url-status=live}}</ref> The highest peak tide recorded by the [[Tuvalu Meteorological Service]] is {{convert|3.4|m|ft}}, on 24 February 2006 and again on 19 February 2015.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[Radio New Zealand]] |date=24 February 2015 |access-date=17 March 2015 |title=Tuvalu surveys road damage after king tides |url=http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/266995/tuvalu-surveys-road-damage-after-king-tides |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402095045/http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/266995/tuvalu-surveys-road-damage-after-king-tides |url-status=live}}</ref> As a result of the historical sea level rise, the [[king tide]] events lead to flooding of low-lying areas, which is compounded when sea levels are further raised by [[La Niña]] effects or local storms and waves.<ref>{{cite web |last=Packard |first=Aaron |title=The Unfolding Crisis in Kiribati and the Urgency of Response |publisher=HuffPostGreen |date=12 March 2015 |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/aaron-packard/the-unfolding-crisis-in-kiribati-and-the-urgency-of-response_b_6854386.html |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150313221905/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/aaron-packard/the-unfolding-crisis-in-kiribati-and-the-urgency-of-response_b_6854386.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="PDV-24-2-15">{{cite news |last1=Eliuta |first1=Niuone |title=Science says Tuvalu will drown within decades; the reality is worse |url=https://devpolicy.org/science-says-tuvalu-will-drown-within-decades-the-reality-is-worse-20240215/ |access-date=15 February 2024 |work=PolicyDevBlog |date=15 February 2024 |archive-date=15 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215005444/https://devpolicy.org/science-says-tuvalu-will-drown-within-decades-the-reality-is-worse-20240215/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Water and sanitation===
[[Rainwater harvesting]] is the principal source of fresh water in Tuvalu. Nukufetau, Vaitupu and Nanumea are the only islands with sustainable groundwater supplies. The effectiveness of rainwater harvesting is diminished because of poor maintenance of roofs, gutters and pipes.<ref name="FTMN"/><ref>Kingston, P A (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120111155715/http://www.wpro.who.int/NR/rdonlyres/C46440CE-2030-47F5-A1BC-14BFA54354FE/0/Tuvalu.pdf Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality in the Pacific Islands: Situation Analysis and Needs Assessment, Country Reports]. WHO. Retrieved 25 March 2010</ref> Aid programmes of Australia and the European Union have been directed to improving the storage capacity on Funafuti and in the outer islands.<ref name=10EDF>{{cite web |url=http://www.delfji.ec.europa.eu/en/achievements/tuvalu.htm |title=Tuvalu – 10th European Development Fund |work=Delegation of the European Union |access-date=24 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008065407/http://www.delfji.ec.europa.eu/en/achievements/tuvalu.htm |archive-date=8 October 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Reverse osmosis (R/O) desalination units supplement rainwater harvesting on Funafuti. The 65 m<sup>3</sup> desalination plant operates at a real production level of around 40 m<sup>3</sup> per day. R/O water is only intended to be produced when storage falls below 30%; however, demand to replenish household storage supplies with tanker-delivered water means that the R/O desalination units are continually operating. Water is delivered at a cost of A$3.50 per m<sup>3</sup>. Cost of production and delivery has been estimated at A$6 per m<sup>3</sup>, with the difference subsidised by the government.<ref name="FTMN"/>

In July 2012, a United Nations Special Rapporteur called on the Tuvalu Government to develop a national water strategy to improve access to safe drinking water and sanitation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pacific.scoop.co.nz/2012/07/un-human-right-to-safe-drinking-water-mission-to-tuvalu/ |title=Mission to Tuvalu – Press Statement United Nations Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation |date=19 July 2012 |publisher=Ms. Catarina de Albuquerque, United Nations Special Rapporteur |access-date=15 August 2012 |archive-date=23 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023005338/http://pacific.scoop.co.nz/2012/07/un-human-right-to-safe-drinking-water-mission-to-tuvalu/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-07-20/an-tuvalu-water-and-sanitation/4143036 |title=Tuvalu urged to develop national water strategy |date=19 July 2012 |publisher=Australian Network News |access-date=15 August 2012 |archive-date=22 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722171644/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-07-20/an-tuvalu-water-and-sanitation/4143036 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2012, Tuvalu developed a National Water Resources Policy under the Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) Project and the Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change (PACC) Project, which are sponsored by the Global Environment Fund/SOPAC. Government water planning has established a target of between 50 and 100L of water per person per day accounting for drinking water, cleaning, community and cultural activities.<ref name="FTMN" />

Tuvalu is working with the [[South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission]] (SOPAC) to implement composting toilets and to improve the treatment of sewage sludge from septic tanks on [[Fongafale]], for septic tanks are leaking into the [[Lens (hydrology)|freshwater lens]] in the sub-surface of the atoll as well as the ocean and lagoon. Composting toilets reduce water use by up to 30%.<ref name="FTMN"/>